Agoge

File:Young Spartans Exercising National Gallery NG3860.jpg

A 19th-century artistic representation of Spartan boys exercising while young girls taunt them.

The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Langx in Attic Greek, or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in Doric Greek) was the training program prerequisite for Spartiate (citizen) status. Spartiate-class boys entered it at age seven, and would stop being a student of the agoge at age 21. It was considered violent by the standards of the day, and was sometimes fatal.

The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was divided into three age groups, paides, paidiskoi, and hēbōntes, roughly corresponding to young boys (7-12), adolescents (12-20), and young men (20-30). The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} deliberately deprived boys of food, sleep, and shelter. It involved cultivating loyalty to Sparta through military training (e.g., pain tolerance), hunting, dancing, singing, and rhetoric.<ref name="OCD2">Template:Cite book</ref> There seems to have been ritual beating. It was intensely competitive, and the boys were encouraged to use violence against each other; by Plutarch's account, this included sexual violence by hēbōntes against paides,<ref>Plutarch says "νέοι" (probably over 20, but under 30) and that most boys have such relationships by the age of 12</ref> while Xenophon says the relationships were widely but wrongly considered to be sexual. Participants were required to live in the open or in barracks, and were restricted from contact with birth families or wives.

Participants were the sons of Spartiates and Spartiate-class mothers (that is, those eligible for citizen status, totalling perhaps 1/10 to 1/32 of the population). Spartiate-class girls (who could not become citizens) did not participate in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, although they may have received a similar state-sponsored education.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":02" /> Helots (slaves), mothax (free non-citizens, thought to be children of slave rape by Spartiates), and other freeborn boys who did not have two Spartiate-class parents, were also excluded. The firstborn sons of the ruling houses, Eurypontid and Agiad, were exempted; a few trophimoi (very well-connected metics or perioeci) took part by special permission, as did syntrophoi (children of helot mothers adopted by Spartiates).

The word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} had various meanings in Ancient Greek and comes from the verb {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (to lead).<ref name="ls2">Template:LSJ.</ref> There is no evidence that it was used to refer to the Spartiate education system until the 3rd century BC, but it was often used before then to mean training, guidance, or discipline.<ref name=":02">Template:Cite book</ref> Sources are unclear about the exact origins of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. According to Xenophon, it was introduced by the semi-mythical Spartan law-giver Lycurgus, and modern scholars have dated its inception to the 7th or 6th century BC<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="OCD2" /> Regardless, the structure and content of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} changed over time as the practice fell in and out of favour throughout the Hellenistic period.<ref name=":2" /> In the Roman period, it became a tourist attraction for Romans.

The Classical Agōgē

Structure

The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was divided into three age categories: the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (about ages 7–14), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (ages 15–19), and the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (ages 20–29).<ref name=":02" /> The boys were further subdivided into groups called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (singular {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, meaning "pack"), with whom they would sleep, and were led by an older boy ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) who Plutarch claims was chosen by the boys themselves.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Plutarch, Lives. Lyc. 17.2</ref> They answered to the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or "boy-herder," an upper-class official who was tasked with overseeing the entire Spartan education system.<ref>Xen. Constitution of the Lacedaimonians, 2.2</ref><ref name=":13">Hodkinson, Stephen (2003). Social Order and the Conflict of Values in Classical Sparta. In Sparta, ed. Michael Whitby. Taylor & Francis. pp.104-130. Template:ISBN</ref>

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} were taught the basics of reading and writing, but even the early stages of education focused on the development of skills that would encourage military prowess.<ref name=":03">Richer, Nicolas (2017). Spartan Education in the Classical Period. In A Companion to Sparta, eds. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 525-542</ref><ref>Plut. Lives. Lyc. 16.6</ref> Boys would compete in athletic events such as running and wrestling, as well as choral dance performances.<ref name=":43">Christesen, Paul (2017). Sparta and Athletics. In A Companion to Sparta, ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.534-564 Template:ISBN</ref> Notably, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} were expected to steal food for themselves and their {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and were probably underfed as a means of encouraging this.<ref name=":02" /> Stealing did not go unpunished, however, as Xenophon reports that those who were caught would be beaten, a lesson which he claims taught the boys stealth and resourcefulness.<ref>Xen. Constitution of the Lacedaimonians, 2.8</ref> There were other hardships too: the boys were made to participate in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in bare feet, supposedly to toughen their feet and improve agility, and beginning at the age of 12, boys would be given only one item of clothing, a cloak, per year.<ref>Plut. Lives. Lyc. 16.6-7</ref><ref>Xen. Constitution of the Lacedaimonians, 2.3-4</ref> Plutarch reports that the boys slept together with the other members of their {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, constructing beds out of reeds pulled by hand from the Eurotas River.<ref>Plut. Lives. Lyc. 16.7</ref>

Additionally, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} were educated in Laconism, the art of speaking in brief, witty phrases. According to French historian Jean Ducat, Aristotle believed that it was important that a Spartan learn how to poke fun at his peers, and that he be able to accept the teasing himself.<ref name=":02" />

At around age 12, a boy would often enter into an institutionalized relationship with a young adult male Spartan, which continued as he became a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name=":03" /><ref>Plut. Lives. Lyc. 17.1</ref> Plutarch described this form of Spartan pederasty (erotic relationship) as one where older warriors (as the erastes) would engage promising youths (the eromenos) in a long-lasting relationship with an instructive motive.<ref>Plut. Lives. Lycurgus, 17-18.</ref> Xenophon, on the other hand, claims that the laws of Lycurgus strictly prohibited sexual relationships with the boys, although he acknowledges that this is unusual compared to other Greek city-states.<ref>Xen. Constitution of the Lacedaimonians, 2.13-14.</ref>

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

Ducat considers the stage of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} as a transitional phase between a child and an adult, where upper-class Spartan boys were encouraged to integrate themselves into adult society.<ref name=":02" /> At this point, loyalty shifted from the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} to the syssition, a common mess where adult Spartiates of all ages were expected to eat together and socialize. Scholars have suggested that one role of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was to act as a "sponsor" through which the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} could gain entry to the same {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name=":03" /><ref name=":02" /> Physical training and athletic competitions continued with an increased intensity.<ref name=":43" />

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

At the age of 20, a young Spartan graduated from the ranks of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} into the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and was known as an {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. If he had demonstrated sufficient leadership qualities throughout his training, he might have been selected to lead an {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name=":02" />

The term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} means: "those who have reached physical adulthood".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It was at this age when Spartan men became eligible for military service and could vote in the assembly, although they were not yet considered full adult citizens and were still under the authority of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":03" /><ref name=":02" /> Those {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} who had impressed their elders the most during their training could be selected for the Crypteia, a type of 'Secret Police' tasked with maintaining control over the Helot population through violence. While scholars such as Pierre Vidal-Naquet have suggested that the Crypteia functioned as an initiatory ritual in the transition into adulthood, others, such as David Dodd, believe it was used primarily as a tool of terror. Plutarch and Plato also differ in their accounts of the Crypteia, with Plutarch mentioning brutal killings done by the Crypteia in Life of Lycurgus and Plato not mentioning the killings at all in Laws.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":03" />

Additionally, 300 {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} were chosen to join the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, a highly-esteemed infantry cohort (despite the name implying cavalry).<ref name=":03" /> Xenophon describes the selection process as a public event where each of the three {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (commanders) chooses 100 men, supposedly to instil a rivalry between each group, seeing as each man would be loyal to the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} who chose him and resentful of the other two. He claims that this encouraged the groups to report instances of their rivals' wrongdoing, effectively keeping the entire cohort in check.<ref>Xen. Constitution of the Lacedaimonians. 4.1-4</ref>

A Spartan man could graduate from the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} at age 30, at which time he was expected to have been accepted into a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and was permitted to have a family.<ref name=":02" /> He would also receive a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, an allotment of land farmed by helots.<ref>Figueira, Thomas (2017). Helotage and the Spartan Economy. In A Companion to Sparta, ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 565-595. Template:ISBN</ref> Those not accepted into a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} did not become Spartiates (citizens). They may have become hypomeiones.

Purpose

According to Plutarch, the main purpose of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was for Spartan boys to undergo intense physical trials to prepare their bodies for the harshness of war.<ref>Plut. Lives. Lyc. 16</ref> The competitive nature of athletic events encouraged hard work and merit.<ref name=":13" /> However, the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} likely had a second purpose: to instil in young children a collective Spartan identity. The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} kept Spartan boys away from their families for much of their childhood, which Stephen Hodkinson believes taught them to favour the needs of the entire populace over that of an individual. Since a Spartan man's formative years were spent entirely in a perpetual competition of merit (both physical and social) they were encouraged to conform to the Spartan laws and social norms.<ref name=":13" /> Completion of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} also served to define what it meant to be a Spartan citizen: one who had proven his mastery of both physical strength and social conventions.<ref name=":03" /><ref name=":02" /><ref>Xen. Constitution of the Lacedaimonians. 10.7</ref>

There may have been an initiatory component to the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, especially in its early history. Training overlapped with ritual activity at the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, where {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} were made to steal from the altar under threat of being beaten if they were caught, possibly as part of an initiation rite in the transition to a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name=":43" /><ref name=":2" /> As well, the Gymnopaedia festival featured choral and athletic competitions between groups of naked youths, and boys may have been expected to participate as part of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name=":43" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":02" />

After the Classical period

The popularity of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was diminished by the first half of the 3rd century BCE, possibly as a result of the declining Spartan population, but was successfully reinvigorated by Cleomenes III in 226 BCE.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite book</ref> It was abolished less than forty years later by Philopoemen when Sparta was forced into the Achaean League in 188/9 BCE but was restored after Sparta came into Roman possession in 146 BCE.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":6">Kennell, Nigel (2017). Spartan Cultural Memory in the Roman Period. In A Companion to Sparta, ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.643-662</ref>

Roman Sparta was characterized by a desire to emulate the traditional institutions of the archaic past, and this was mainly expressed through the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Ironically, the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in this period was almost certainly different from that of the Classical period.<ref name=":6" /> For example, there may have been a change in the way boys were divided by age; Plutarch (writing in the 2nd century CE) mentions only two groups: the younger {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and the older {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name=":03" /> As well, the term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} appears to replace the Classical {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} as the name for the groups of boys.<ref name=":02" />

However, the cult of Artemis Orthia continued to play a role. Cicero describes an initiation ritual where naked boys were brutally whipped at the altar of that goddess, and numerous {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} mention contests of choral singing and dancing which may celebrate Artemis and the hunt.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":5" /><ref>Cicero. Tusc. 2.34, 2.46, 5.77</ref> It is likely around this time that a game called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was developed (although it may have existed in the Classical period), which took place on a small island, and featured a violent, physical contest to force the opposing side into the water.<ref name=":43" /> This contest was likely ritual in nature, as two sacrifices were performed before the event could begin.<ref name=":02" /> The characterization of the Roman-era {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} as especially brutal reinforced the opinion of the Roman public that Spartans were traditionally a harsh, warlike people.<ref name=":6" />

Paidonomos

The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was the magistrate in charge of overseeing the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} as a whole. According to Xenophon, the position is as old as the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} itself, having been created by Lycurgus at the same time.<ref name=":8">Xen. Constitution of the Lacedaimonians. 2.2</ref> As the ultimate position of authority within the Spartan education system, the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was responsible for doling out punishment, but was probably not directly responsible for inflicting it; this would have been delegated to the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, a squadron of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} armed with whips.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":03" /> Plutarch notes that the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} would observe an {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}'s punishment of younger boys in his {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, to assess whether or not it was acceptable.<ref>Plutarch. Lives. Lycurgus. 18.2-3</ref>

Xenophon stresses the difference between the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, a free, high-ranking magistrate, and the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (tutors) found in other poleis, who were slaves.<ref>Xen. Constitution of the Lacedaimonians. 2.1</ref>

Reception

In Antiquity

The exact nature of an education in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was not hidden from the rest of the Greek world. This is evidenced by the number of non-Spartan sources who wrote about the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: Thucydides indicates that the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was well-known throughout Greece in the Classical period, and both Plato and Aristotle praised it as part of an ideal city-state.<ref>Powell, Anton (2017). Sparta: Reconstructing History from Secrecy, Lies and Myth. In A Companion to Sparta, ed. Anton Powell. pp. 1-28. Template:ISBN</ref><ref>Aristot. Pol. 8.1337a</ref>

Further evidence for this comes from the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, which is used to describe foreigners who were educated in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name=":02" /> The historian Xenophon is a notable example of this, as his sons reportedly took part in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} despite being Athenian. Such {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} were likely sponsored and hosted by a Spartan family; Xenophon himself was a friend of King Agesilaus II.<ref name=":02" /> This practice likely continued into the Hellenistic Period. Supposedly, Pyrrhus of Epirus hid his intention to overthrow Sparta by claiming that part of his reason for marching on the Peloponnese was to have his sons trained in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref>Plut. Lives. Pyrrhus. 26.9-11</ref><ref>Stewart, Daniel (2017). From Leuktra to Nabis, 371-192. In A Companion to Sparta, ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.374-402</ref>

Plutarch, writing after Xenophon and during the Roman era when the Agoge was restored, was critical of this education. He wrote that reading and writing were studied only for practical reasons and that every other form of education was banned in the city-state.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Plutarch also emphasized the brutality and indoctrination of the Spartan education system.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

19th – 21st centuries

In the early 20th century, comparisons were drawn between the Spartan education system and the Royal Prussian Cadets in Germany, praising the harsh education as the driving force behind the cadets' military prowess.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> In 1900, Paul von Szczepanski published his novel {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Spartan Youths) about his education at one such cadet school during the late 19th century. Aside from the name, the book features other references to Spartan training, which Helen Roche believes are indicators that boys at these schools were taught to associate themselves with young Spartans.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":1" />

In Weimar Germany, after the loss of the First World War, many scholars drew connections with the sacrifice of the Spartan king Leonidas at Thermopylae to justify the deaths of those who died in the war. The mental strength of Leonidas and the 300 was attributed in part to their upbringing in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name=":7">Rebenich, Stefan (2017). Reception of Sparta in Germany and German-Speaking Europe. In A Companion to Sparta, ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. pp. 685-703 Template:ISBN</ref> In the 1930s, the Nazi-aligned professor Helmut Berve praised the Spartan style of education in particular for its ability to weed out those considered "unfit" for society and to create a community of unified warriors. He argued that Nazi leaders should use Sparta as an example of their ideal society, ideas which Hitler himself supposedly agreed with.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> At the Adolf Hitler Schule in Weimar, Germany, schoolchildren were taught that Sparta maintained its power by producing tough, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}-educated warriors.<ref name=":7" />

In the 21st century, the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is known primarily in the context of intense physical trials. Spartan Race Inc., an American company, hosts a variety of endurance competitions across the world, the most challenging of which is called "Template:Not a typo". It stands as a physical trial rather than a state-sponsored education.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In science fiction, Red Rising contains a training program based on Greek institutions like the agōgē in the form of a state-sponsored military education system which utilizes Greek names and symbols; the program emphasizes Spartan discipline against Athenian Democracy.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In the American action film 300 (2007), Leonidas is depicted attending the Agoge as a child and fulfilling various physical and mental trials from fighting other children to being whipped as a form of discipline.

Historian Bret Devereaux has compared the Spartan {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} to the indoctrination of child soldiers in modern societies as part of his blog "A Collection of Unmitigated Pedantry".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In the Sony Santa Monica Studio Playstation game God of War Ragnarok, the protagonist Kratos talks about his upbringing alongside his brother in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, noting the cruel and violent methods used to train children and how he looked to avoid doing so with his second child, Atreus.Template:Citation needed

See also

• Fagging
• History of Sparta
• Paideia
• Spartiates

Bibliography

Secondary sources

• Cartledge, Paul (2001). Spartan reflections. London: Duckworth. Template:ISBN. OCLC 45648270
• Christesen, Paul (2017). Sparta and Athletics. In A Companion to Sparta, ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.534-564 Template:ISBN
• Demandt, Alexander (2002). "Klassik als Klischee: Hitler und die Antike". Historische Zeitschrift. 274 (2): 281–313. ISSN 0018-2613.
• Devereaux, Bret (2019-08-16). "Collections: This. Isn't. Sparta. Part I: Spartan School". A Collection of Unmitigated Pedantry. Retrieved 2021-03-19.
• Ducat, Jean (2006). Spartan education : youth and society in the classical period. Emma Stafford, Pamela-Jane Shaw, Anton Powell. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. Template:ISBN. OCLC 76892341
• Figueira, Thomas (2017). Helotage and the Spartan Economy. In A Companion to Sparta, ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 565-595. Template:ISBN
• Hodkinson, Stephen (1996). "Agoge". In Hornblower, Simon (ed.). Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
• Hodkinson, Stephen (2003). Social Order and the Conflict of Values in Classical Sparta. In Sparta, ed. Michael Whitby. Taylor & Francis. pp.104-130. Template:ISBN
• Kennell, Nigel (2017). Spartan Cultural Memory in the Roman Period. In A Companion to Sparta, ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.643-662. Template:ISBN
• Kennell, Nigel M. (1995). The gymnasium of virtue : education & culture in ancient Sparta. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Template:ISBN. OCLC 42854632.
• Powell, Anton (2017). Sparta: Reconstructing History from Secrecy, Lies and Myth. In A Companion to Sparta, ed. Anton Powell. pp. 1-28. Template:ISBN
• Rebenich, Stefan (2017). Reception of Sparta in Germany and German-Speaking Europe. In A Companion to Sparta, ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. pp. 685-703 Template:ISBN
• Richer, Nicolas (2017). Spartan Education in the Classical Period. In A Companion to Sparta, eds. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 525-542. Template:ISBN
• Roche, Helen (2013). Sparta's German children the ideal of ancient Sparta in the Royal Prussian Cadet-Corps, 1818-1920, and in the Nationalist-Socialist elite schools (the Napolas), 1933-1945. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. pp. 32–35. Template:ISBN. OCLC 1019630468.
• Scanlon, Thomas Francis (2002). Eros & Greek athletics. New York: Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN. OCLC 316719681.
• Stewart, Daniel (2017). From Leuktra to Nabis, 371-192. In A Companion to Sparta, ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.374-402. Template:ISBN
• Tazelaar, C.M. (1967). "ΠAIΔEΣ KAI EΦHBOI". Mnemosyne. 20 (2): 127–153. doi:10.1163/156852567X01473. ISSN 0026-7074.
• Vidal-Naquet, Pierre (1981). Le chasseur noir : formes de penseé et formes de société dans le monde grec. Paris: F. Maspero. Template:ISBN. OCLC 7658419.

Primary sources

• Aristotle. Politics
• Berve, Helmut (1937). Sparta. Meyers Kleine Handbücher,7. Leipzig: Bibliographisches Institut AG.
• Cicero. Tusculan Disputations
• Plutarch. Lives. Life of Lycurgus
• Plutarch. Lives. Life of Pyrrhus
• Szczepanski, Paul Von (2018). Spartanerjünglinge: Eine Kadettengeschichte in Briefen. Forgotten Books. Template:ISBN.
• Xenophon. Constitution of the Lacedaimonians