Ahmad ibn Hanbal

Ahmad ibn HanbalTemplate:Efn (Template:Langx; (164-241 AH; 780 – 855 CE) was an Arab Muslim scholar, jurist, theologian, traditionist, ascetic and eponym of the Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence—one of the four major orthodox legal schools of Sunni Islam.<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7"/> The most highly influential and active scholar during his lifetime,<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7"/> Ibn Hanbal went on to become "one of the most venerated" intellectual figures in Islamic history,<ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref> who has had a "profound influence affecting almost every area" of the traditionalist perspective within Sunni Islam.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> One of the foremost classical proponents of relying on scriptural sources as the basis for Sunni Islamic law and way of life, Ibn Hanbal compiled one of the most significant Sunni hadith collections, al-Musnad,<ref>1st ed., Cairo 1311; new edition by Aḥmad S̲h̲ākir in publ. since 1368/1948</ref> which has continued to exercise considerable influence on the field of hadith studies up to the present time.<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7"/>

Having studied jurisprudence and hadith under many teachers during his youth,<ref>Manāḳib, pp. 33–36; Tard̲j̲ama, pp. 13–24</ref> Ibn Hanbal became famous in his later life for the crucial role he played in the Mihna instituted by the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun toward the end of his reign, in which the ruler gave official state support to the Mu'tazili doctrine of the Quran being created, a view that contradicted the orthodox position of the Quran being the eternal, uncreated word of God.<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7"/> Living in poverty throughout his lifetime working as a baker, and suffering physical persecution under the caliphs for his unflinching adherence to the traditional doctrine, Ibn Hanbal's fortitude in this particular event only bolstered his "resounding reputation"<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7"/> in the annals of Sunni history.

Ibn Hanbal later came to be venerated as an exemplary figure in all traditional schools of Sunni thought,<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7"/> both by the exoteric scholars and ascetic Sufis, with the latter often designating him as a saint in their hagiographies.<ref name="Christopher Melchert 2001 p. 356">Christopher Melchert, The Ḥanābila and the Early Sufis, Arabica, T. 48, Fasc. 3 (Brill, 2001), p. 356</ref> The 12th-century jurist and theologian Ibn al-Jawzi relates he "was the foremost in collecting the prophetic way and adhering to it."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> He was further praised by the 14th-century historian and traditionist al-Dhahabi, who referred to Ibn Hanbal as "the true shaykh of Islam and imam of the Muslims in his time; the traditionist and proof of the religion'."<ref name="Gibril F. Haddad 2007 p. 301">Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 301</ref>

In the modern era, Ibn Hanbal's name has become controversial in certain quarters of the Islamic world, as the Hanbali reform movement known as Wahhabism has cited him as a principal influence along with the 13th-century Hanbali reformer Ibn Taymiyya. However, it has been argued by certain scholars that Ibn Hanbal's own beliefs actually played "no real part in the establishment of the central doctrines of Wahhabism,"<ref name="Michael Cook 1992 p. 198">Michael Cook, "On the Origins of Wahhābism," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Jul., 1992), p. 198</ref> as there is evidence, according to the same authors, "the older Hanbali authorities had doctrinal concerns very different from those of the Wahhabis,"<ref name="Michael Cook 1992 p. 198"/> due to medieval Hanbali literature being rich in references to saints, grave visitation, miracles, and relics.<ref>Christopher Melchert, The Ḥanābila and the Early Sufis, Arabica, T. 48, Fasc. 3 (Brill, 2001); cf. Ibn al-Jawzī, Manāqib al-imām Aḥmad, ed. ʿĀdil Nuwayhiḍ, Beirut 1393/1973</ref> In this connection, scholars have cited Ibn Hanbal's own support for the use of relics as one of several important points on which the theologian's positions diverged from those adhering to Wahhabism.<ref name="Gibril F. Haddad 2007 p. 390">Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 390</ref> Other scholars maintain he was "the distant progenitor of Wahhabism", who also immensely inspired the similar conservative reform movement of Salafism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Personal life

Birth

Ahmad ibn Hanbal was born in November 780 CE. This was mentioned by his son Abdullah.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Ibn Hanbal's family was originally from Basra, and belonged to the Arab Banu Dhuhl tribe. His father was an officer in the Abbasid army in Khorasan and later settled with his family in Baghdad.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

Historians differ about his place of birth. Some say he was said that he was born in Merv, located in Mary, Turkmenistan today, where his father and grandfather had also previously worked. While according to others he was born in Baghdad after his mother came pregnant with him from the city of Merv, where his father was. The latter opinion is the most accepted one.<ref name=":1" /><ref>The Virtues of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal by Ibn al-Jawzi, p. 14</ref>

Upbringing

Ibn Hanbal lost his father when he was a young child. His father died young at the age of thirty only. Then his mother raised him under the care of those who remained from his father's family. His father had left him a property in Baghdad in which he lived, and another which yielded him a small rental income sufficient for his living.<ref>Ibn Hanbal – his life and his era – his jurisprudential opinions by Abu Zahra, pp. 17–18</ref><ref>The Four Imams by Mustafa al-Shaka'a, Vol. 4, pp. 7–8.</ref> The reports are conflicting about whether it was large or small. Ibn Kathir mentioned its amount, saying: "His income from his property was seventeen dirhams each month, which he spent on his family, and he was content with that, seeking the mercy of Allah, patiently and seeking reward." It is also narrated that a man asked Imam Ahmad about the property he was using on which he made a house on. He replied: "This is something I inherited from my father. If a man comes to me and confirms that this is his, I will get rid of it and give it to him".<ref>Ibn Hanbal – his life and his era – his jurisprudential opinions by Abu Zahra, pp. 75–77</ref>

Marriage and children

Ahmad ibn Hanbal did not marry until he reached the age of forty. It is said that this was because he was busy with knowledge, or because he traveled a lot and was away from his country for a long time. When he reached the age of forty and became closer to settling down than before, and he thought about marriage.<ref>The Virtues of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal by Ibn al-Jawzi, p. 72</ref>

His first wife was "Abbasa bintul Fadl", an Arab girl from the suburbs of Baghdad, and she lived with Ahmad ibn Hanbal for thirty years(or twenty years according to some reports), and bore him their son "Salih", and hence her she was known by her title Umm Salih. Ibn Hanbal remarked about her: "In the 30 (or 20) years we were together, we never had a disagreement." After she died Ahmad married his second wife, "Ummu 'Abdillah Rayhana bintu 'Uma" known simply as "Rayhana", and she bore him one son, "Abdullah". She known for having only one eye, and Ibn Hanbal married her because he was impressed by her religious commitment. Reports suggest that they were together for seven years. He also had a concubine named "Husn", who bore him a female girl "Zainab", then twins, "Al-Hasan" and "Al-Hussein", who died after their birth. Then she bore "Al-Hasan" and "Muhammad", and then she bored him "Saeed". Among his sons, Salih and Abdullah excelled in jurisprudence, while Saeed later became the judge of Kufa.<ref name="hadithanswers">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>The Four Imams by Mustafa Al-Shakaa, Vol. 4, pp. 89–90</ref><ref>Manaqib al-Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal by Ibn al-Jawzi, Chapter Sixty-Two: Mentions the Number of His Wives, pp. 402–05, Chapter Sixty-Three Mantions His Concubines, pp. 406–08, and Chapter Sixty-Four Mentions the Number of His Children, pp. 409–10.</ref>

Education and work

File:Ibnhanbal.jpg

A manuscript of Ibn Hanbal's legal writings, produced October 879

Ibn Hanbal studied extensively in Baghdad, and later traveled to further his education. At the age of fourteen, he began to work as a scribe in Divan.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Page reference He learnt the Quran from Yahya ibn Adam,<ref>Muḥaysin, Muḥammad Muḥammad Muḥammad Sālim (1992). معجم حفاظ القرآن عبر التاريخ [Dictionary of Quran Memorizers Throughout History] (in Arabic). Vol. 1 (1 ed.). Beirut: Dār al-Jīl.</ref> and jurisprudence under the celebrated judge of Hanafi jurisprudence, Abu Yusuf, a student of Abu Hanifa. He learnt Quran from Yahya ibn Adam. After completing his studies with him, Ibn Hanbal began traveling throughout Arabia to collect narrations of Muhammad. Ibn al-Jawzi stated Ibn Hanbal had 414 traditionists whom he narrated from. With this knowledge, he became a leading authority in the field, leaving behind an immense encyclopedia of narrations, al-Musnad. After several years of travel, he returned to Baghdad to study Islamic law under al-Shafi'i, with whom he formed a close bond with.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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Ibn Hanbal became a judge in his old age. Through his students, the Hanbali school of jurisprudence was established, which is now most dominant in Saudi Arabia and Qatar.<ref>Daryl Champion (2002), The Paradoxical Kingdom: Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform, Columbia University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 23 footnote 7</ref><ref>Jurisprudence and Law – Islam Reorienting the Veil, University of North Carolina (2009)</ref> Unlike the other three schools—Hanafi, Maliki, and Shafi'i—the Hanbali school remained largely Athari in its theology.<ref name="Halverson-34">Template:Cite book</ref>

In addition to his scholastic enterprises, Ibn Hanbal was a soldier in the war frontiers and performed pilgrimage five times in his life, twice on foot.<ref name=islam>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Inquisition

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Ibn Hanbal is known to have been called before the Mihna of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun, who wanted to assert his religious authority by pressuring scholars to adopt the Mu'tazili doctrine of the Quran being created, rather than uncreated. According to Sunni tradition, Ibn Hanbal was one of the foremost scholars in resisting the caliph's interference and his imposed doctrine. Ibn Hanbal's stance led to the Hanbali school establishing itself firmly as not only a school of jurisprudence, but theology as well.<ref>Template:Cite bookTemplate:Dead link</ref>

Because of Ibn Hanbal's refusal to accept the Mu'tazili doctrine, he was imprisoned in Baghdad throughout the reign of al-Ma'mun. In an incident during the rule of al-Ma'mun's successor, al-Mu'tasim, Ibn Hanbal was flogged to unconsciousness; however, this caused great upheaval in Baghdad and forced al-Mu'tasim to release him.<ref name="islam"/>Template:Dead link After al-Mu'tasim's death, al-Wathiq became caliph and continued his predecessors' policies of enforcing the Mu'tazili doctrine and, in this pursuit, banished Ibn Hanbal from Baghdad. It was only after al-Wathiq's death and the ascent of his brother al-Mutawakkil, who was much more tolerating of the traditional Sunni beliefs, that Ibn Hanbal was welcomed back to Baghdad.Template:Citation needed

Illness and Death

At the end of his life, Ibn Hanbal became severely ill. His son Salih describes his illness as:<ref>The Virtues of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal by Ibn al-Jawzi, Chapter Seventy-Nine: In Mention of His Illness, pp. 540–48</ref>

"On the first day of Rabi' al-Awwal in the year 241 AH, my father developed a fever on Tuesday night. I visited him on Wednesday while he was feverish and breathing heavily. I was familiar with his ailment and had taken care of him whenever he fell ill. I asked him, 'Father, what did you break your fast on last night?' He replied, 'On broad bean water.' Then, he attempted to get up and said, 'Take my hand.' I held his hand, but as he reached the restroom, his legs weakened, and he leaned on me for support.

Several physicians, all Muslims, visited him. A doctor named Abdul Rahman prescribed for him a roasted gourd to be eaten and its water to be drunk. This was on Tuesday, and he passed away on Friday."{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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Ibn Hanbal died on Friday, 2 August 855 at the age of 74–75 in Baghdad. He was buried after the afternoon prayer. Historians relate his funeral was attended by 800,000 men and 60,000 women, and 20,000 Christians and Jews converted to Islam on that day.<ref name="Ludwig 2009">Template:Citation</ref> His grave is located in the premises of the Ahmad ibn Hanbal Mosque<ref name="DargahInfo – Details">Template:Citation</ref><ref name="DargahInfo – History">Template:Citation</ref> in al-Rusafa District.<ref name="AlMada">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="SED – دليل الجوامع">Template:Citation</ref><ref name="SED – الدليل السياحي">Template:Citation</ref> It is reported among the people of Baghdad that during the flood of the Tigris in 1937, the remains of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal were supposedly relocated to Arif Agha Mosque.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, later historians have doubted the story, stating that it to be erroneous.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Will

His son Salih, read his will to him at his deathbed which he confirmed.<ref>Ibn al-Jawzi, The Virtues of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Chapter Seventy-Nine: Mentioning his Illness, pp. 540-548</ref>

"In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.

This is what Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Hanbal bequeaths. He testifies that there is no god but Allah, alone with no partner, and that Muhammad is His servant and messenger. He sent him with guidance and the true religion to make it prevail over all religions, even if the polytheists dislike it.

He advises his family and relatives who obey him to worship Allah among the worshipers, to praise Him among those who praise, and to be sincere to the Muslim community.

I declare that I am content with Allah as my Lord, with Islam as my religion, and with Muhammad peace and blessings of Allah be upon him as my prophet.

I bequeath to Abdullah ibn Muhammad, known as Fawran, approximately fifty dinars. He is to be trusted in what he claims, and what I owe him shall be settled from the revenue of my house, God willing. Once that is settled, my son Salih’s children—both male and female—are to be given ten dirhams each."{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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Appearance

Ibn Hanbal is described as having a good-looking face and a brown complexion. Reports on his height vary, with some describing him as relatively tall while others describing him of medium height. He used to trim him moustache and dye his beard with unripe non-reddish Henna. His beard is also described as having some black strands. He would wear average garments, reportedly costing around one Dinar. Oftentimes, he is described as wearing a Thawb, with an Ammama. He used to keep extremely clean and was meticulous about his personal Hygiene.<ref name=":3" />Template:Page reference

Views and thought

Ibn Hanbal's principal doctrine is what later came to be known as "traditionalist thought," which emphasized the acceptance of only the Quran and hadith as the foundations of orthodox belief.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> He did, however, believe that it was only a select few who were properly authorized to interpret the sacred texts.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Theology

God

Template:Further Ibn Hanbal understood the perfect definition of God to be that given in the Quran, whence he held that proper belief in God constituted believing in the description which God had given of Himself in the Islamic scripture.<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7"/> To begin with, Ibn Hanbal asserted that God was both Unique and Absolute and absolutely incomparable to anything in the world of His creatures.<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7"/> As for the various divine attributes, Ibn Hanbal believed that all the regular attributes of God, such as hearing, sight, speech, omnipotence, will, wisdom, the vision by the believers on the day of resurrection etc., were to be literally affirmed as "realities" (ḥaqq). As for those attributes called "ambiguous" (mutas̲h̲ābih), such as those which spoke of God's hand, face, throne, and omnipresence, vision by the believers on the day of resurrection, etc. they were to be understood in the same manner.<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7" /> Ibn Hanbal treated those verses in the scriptures with apparently anthropomorphic descriptions as muhkamat (clear) verses; admitting to only a literal meaning.<ref name=ref1/>

Furthermore, Ibn Hanbal "rejected the negative theology (taʿṭīl) of the Jahmiyya and their particular allegorizing exegesis (taʾwīl) of the Quran and of tradition, and no less emphatically criticized the anthropomorphism (tas̲h̲bīh) of the Mus̲h̲abbiha, amongst whom he included, in the scope of his polemics, the Jahmiyya as unconscious anthropomorphists."<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7" /> Ibn Hanbal was also a critic of overt and unnecessary speculation in matters of theology; he believed that it was fair to worship God "without the 'mode' of the theologoumena (bilā kayf),<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7" /> and felt it was wise to leave to God the understanding of His own mystery.<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7" /> Thus, Ibn Hanbal became a strong proponent of the bi-lā kayfa formula. This mediating principle allowed the traditionalists to deny ta'wil (figurative interpretations) of the apparently anthropomorphic texts while concomitantly affirming the doctrine of the "incorporeal, transcendent deity". Although he argued for literalist meanings of the Qur'anic and prophetic statements about God, Ibn Hanbal was not a fideist and was willing to engage in hermeneutical exercises. The rise of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal and the Ashab al-Hadith, whose cause he championed, during the Mihna; would mark the stage for the empowerment and centering of corporealist ideas in the Sunnite orthodoxy.<ref name=ref2/>

Ibn Hanbal also recognized "Divine Form (Al-Şūrah)" as a true attribute of God. He disagreed with those speculative theologians who interpreted the Divine Form as something that represents pseudo-divinities such as the sun, moon, stars, etc. For Ibn Hanbal, to deny that God truly has a Form is Kufr (disbelief). He also believed that God created Adam "according to His form".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Censuring those who alleged that this was referring to the form of Adam, Ibn Hanbal asserted:

"He who says that Allah created Adam according to the form of Adam, he is a Jahmi (disbeliever). Which form did Adam have before He created him?"<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The Quran

One of Ibn Hanbal's most famous contributions to Sunni thought was the considerable role he played in bolstering the orthodoxTemplate:VagueTemplate:Weasel inline doctrine of the Quran being the "uncreated Word of God" (kalām Allāh g̲h̲ayr mak̲h̲lūḳ).<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7"/> By "Quran," Ibn Hanbal understood "not just an abstract idea but the Quran with its letters, words, expressions, and ideas—the Quran in all its living reality, whose nature in itself," according to Ibn Hanbal, eluded human comprehension.<ref name="H. Laoust pp. 272-7"/>

Taqlid

Ibn Hanbal favoured independent reasoning (ijtihad) and rejected blind following (taqlid)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> in the case of scholars, although he did allow taqlid for laymen and the average Muslim community. His staunch condemnation of taqlid is reported in the treatise Fath al-Majid by Hanbali judge Abd al-Rahman ibn Hasan (1782–1868). Comparing taqlid to polytheism (shirk), Ibn Hanbal states:

"I am amazed at those people who know that a chain of narration is authentic, and yet, in spite of this, they follow the opinion of Sufyan, for God says, 'And let those who oppose the Messenger's commandment beware, lest some fitna should befall them, or a painful torment be inflicted on them.' Do you know what that fitna is? That fitna is shirk. Maybe the rejection of some of his words would cause one to doubt and deviate in his heart, and thereby be destroyed."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

It is important to understand that this statement was directed towards his students which were capable of Ijtihad, and is not meant towards laymen. This statement is explained by Ibn Taymiyya:

"Imam Ahmad deemed it unlawful for a scholar capable of ijtihad to make taqlid of them. He said: “Do not make taqlid of me, nor of Malik, al-Shafi‘i, or al-Thawri” … He instructed the lay people to seek fatwas from Ishaq, Abu ‘Ubayd, Abu Thawr and Abu Mus‘ab. But he forbade the scholars from among his students – like Abu Dawud, ‘Uthman b. Sa‘id, Ibrahim al-Harbi, Abu Bakr al-Athram, Abu Zur‘ah, Abu Hatim al-Sijistani, Muslim and others – from making taqlid of any other scholar. He would say: “Stick to the basic principle by following the Book and the Sunnah.”<ref>Majmu‘ Fatawa, 20/226</ref>

This makes it evident that Ahmad ibn Hanbal’s prohibition of taqlid was intended solely for scholars (Ulama), and he harshly condemned those who rejected the layman’s duty to perform taqlid.

Intercession

It is narrated by Abū Bakr al-Marwazī in his Mansak that Ibn Hanbal preferred one to make tawassul or "intercession" through Muhammad in every supplication, with the wording: "O God! I am turning to Thee with Thy Prophet, the Prophet of Mercy. O Muhammad! I am turning with you to my Lord for the fulfillment of my need."<ref>Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 389 [trans slightly revised].</ref> This report is repeated in many later Hanbali works, in the context of personal supplication as an issue of jurisprudence.<ref>Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 389.</ref> Ibn Qudamah, for example, recommends it for the obtainment of need in his Wasiyya.<ref>Ibn Quduma, Wasiyya al-Muwaffaq Ibn Quduma al-Maqdisi, p. 93; see Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 389</ref> In the same way, Ibn Taymiyyah cites the Hanbali fatwa on the desirability of Muhammad's intercession in every personal supplication in his Qāida fil-Tawassul wal-Wasiīla where he attributes it to "Imām Ahmad and a group of the pious ancestors" from the Mansak of al-Marwazī as his source.<ref>See Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 389.</ref>

Mysticism

As there exist historical sources indicating patently "mystical elements in his personal piety"<ref>Holtzman, Livnat, "Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, Edited by: Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Everett Rowson; cf. Ibn al-Jawzī, Manāqib al-imām Aḥmad, ed. ʿĀdil Nuwayhiḍ, Beirut 1393/1973 and Christopher Melchert, The Ḥanābila and the Early Sufis, Arabica, T. 48, Fasc. 3 (Brill, 2001), pp. 355–56</ref> and documented evidence of his amiable interactions with numerous early Sufi saints, including Maruf Karkhi,<ref>H. Laoust, "Ahmad b. Hanbal," in Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. I, pp. 272–77; Christopher Melchert, The Ḥanābila and the Early Sufis, Arabica, T. 48, Fasc. 3 (Brill, 2001), p. 356</ref> it is recognized that Ibn Hanbal's relationship with many of the Sufis was one of mutual respect and admiration. Qadi Abu Ya'la reports in his Tabaqat: "[Ibn Hanbal] used to greatly respect the Sūfīs and show them kindness and generosity. He was asked about them and was told that they sat in mosques constantly to which he replied, 'Knowledge made them sit.'"<ref>Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 387; see ; see Ibn Abī Ya'lā, Tabaqāt al-Hanābila, II.279</ref> Furthermore, it is in Ibn Hanbal's Musnad that we find most of the hadith reports concerning the abdal, forty major saints "whose number [according to Islamic mystical doctrine] would remain constant, one always being replaced by some other on his death" and whose key role in the traditional Sufi conception of the celestial hierarchy would be detailed by later mystics such as Hujwiri and Ibn Arabi.<ref name="Christopher Melchert 2001 p. 356"/> It has been reported that Ibn Hanbal explicitly identified Maruf Karkhi as one of the abdal, saying: "He is one of the Substitute-Saints, and his supplication is answered."<ref name="Gibril F. Haddad 2007 p. 387">Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 387</ref> Of the same Sufi, Ibn Hanbal later asked rhetorically: "Is religious knowledge anything else than what Maruf has achieved?"<ref name="Christopher Melchert 2001 p. 356"/> Additionally, there are accounts of Ibn Hanbal extolling the early ascetic saint Bishr the Barefoot and his sister as two exceptional devotees of God,<ref>John Renard, Friends of God: Islamic Images of Piety, Commitment, and Servanthood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), p. 158</ref> and of his sending people with mystical questions to Bishr for guidance.<ref>Hujwiri, Kashf al-Majhub, trans. R. A. Nicholson (Leiden: Brill, 1911), p. 117</ref> It is also recorded that Ibn Hanbal said, with regard to the early Sufis, "I do not know of any people better than them."<ref>al-Ghiza al-Albab, I, p. 120</ref> Moreover, there are accounts of Ibn Hanbal's son, Sālih, being exhorted by his father to go and study under the Sufis. According to one tradition, Sālih said: "My father would send for me whenever a self-denier or ascetic (zāhid aw mutaqashshif) visited him so I could look at him. He loved for me to become like this."<ref name="Gibril F. Haddad 2007 p. 387"/>

As for the Sufis' reception of Ibn Hanbal, it is evident that he was "held in high regard" by all the major Sufis of the classical and medieval periods,<ref name="Jawziyya, 2000 p. 153">Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Al-Wabil al-Sayyib min al-Kalim al-Tayyib, trans. Michael Abdurrahman Fitzgerald and Moulay Youssef Slitine as The Invocation of God (London: Islamic Texts Society, 2000), p. 153 (note by Timothy Winter)</ref> and later Sufi chroniclers often designated the jurist as a saint in their hagiographies, praising him both for his legal work and for his appreciation of Sufi doctrine.<ref name="Jawziyya, 2000 p. 153"/> Hujwiri, for example, wrote of him: "He was distinguished by devoutness and piety ... Sufis of all orders regard him as blessed. He associated with great Shaykhs, such as Dhul-Nun of Egypt, Bishr al-Hafi, Sari al-Saqati, Maruf Karkhi, and others. His miracles were manifest and his intelligence sound ... He had a firm belief in the principles of religion, and his creed was approved by all the [theologians]."<ref>Hujwiri, Kashf al-Majhub, trans. R. A. Nicholson (Leiden: Brill, 1911), pp. 117–18</ref> Both non-Hanbali and Hanbali Sufi hagiographers such as Hujwiri and Ibn al-Jawzi, respectively, also alluded to Ibn Hanbal's own gifts as a miracle worker<ref>Ibn al-Jawzī, The Life of Ibn Hanbal, XXIV.2, trans. Michael Cooperson (New York: New York University Press, 2016), p. 89; Hujwiri, Kashf al-Majhub, trans. R. A. Nicholson (Leiden: Brill, 1911), pp. 117–18; Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Al-Wabil al-Sayyib min al-Kalim al-Tayyib, trans. Michael Abdurrahman Fitzgerald and Moulay Youssef Slitine as The Invocation of God (London: Islamic Texts Society, 2000), p. 153 (note by Timothy Winter)</ref> and of the blessedness of his grave.<ref>Ibn al-Jawzī, Manāqib al-imām Aḥmad, ed. ʿĀdil Nuwayhiḍ, Beirut 1393/1973</ref> For example, Ibn Hanbal's own body was traditionally held to have been blessed with the miracle of incorruptibility, with Ibn al-Jawzi relating: "When the Prophet's descendant Abū Ja'far ibn Abī Mūsā was buried next to him, Ahmad ibn Hanbal's tomb was exposed. His corpse had not putrified and the shroud was still whole and undecayed."<ref>Ibn al-Jawzī, The Life of Ibn Hanbal, XCV.7, trans. Michael Cooperson (New York: New York University Press, 2016), p. 298</ref>

Although there is a perception that Ibn Hanbal or his school were somehow adverse to Sufism, scholars such as Eric Geoffrey have asserted that this opinion is more partial than objective, for there is no proof that the Hanbali school "[attacked] Sufism in itself any more than any other school,"<ref name="Eric Geoffrey 2010 p. 121">Eric Geoffrey, Introduction to Sufism: The Inner Path of Islam (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2010), p. 121</ref> and it is evident that "during the first centuries some major Sufis [such as Ibn Ata Allah, Hallaj, and Abdullah Ansari] ... followed the Hanbalite school of law."<ref name="Eric Geoffrey 2010 p. 121"/> By the twelfth-century, the relationship between Hanbalism and Sufism was so close that one of the most prominent Hanbali jurists, Abdul Qadir Jilani, was also simultaneously the most famous Sufi of his era, and the Tariqa that he founded, the Qadiriyya, has continued to remain one of the most widespread Sufi orders up until the present day.<ref name="Eric Geoffrey 2010 p. 121"/> Even later Hanbali authors who were famous for criticizing some of the "deviances" of certain heterodox Sufi orders of their day, such as Ibn Qudamah, Ibn al-Jawzi, and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, all belonged to Abdul Qadir Jilani's order themselves, and never condemned Sufism outright.<ref name="Eric Geoffrey 2010 p. 121"/>

Relics

As has been noted by scholars, it is evident that Ibn Hanbal "believed in the power of relics,"<ref name="Christopher Melchert 2001 p. 356"/> and supported the seeking of blessing through them in religious veneration. Indeed, several accounts of Ibn Hanbal's life relate that he often carried "a purse ... in his sleeve containing ... hairs from the Prophet."<ref name="Christopher Melchert 2001 p. 356"/> Furthermore, Ibn al-Jawzi relates a tradition narrated by Ibn Hanbal's son, Abdullah ibn Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who recalled his father's devotion towards relics thus: "I saw my father take one of the Prophet's hairs, place it over his mouth, and kiss it. I may have seen him place it over his eyes, and dip it in water and then drink the water for a cure."<ref name="Jawzī, 2016 p. 89">Ibn al-Jawzī, The Life of Ibn Hanbal, XXIV.2, trans. Michael Cooperson (New York: New York University Press, 2016), p. 89</ref> In the same way, Ibn Hanbal also drunk from Muhammad's bowl (technically a "second-class" relic) in order to seek blessings from it,<ref name="Jawzī, 2016 p. 89"/> and considered touching and kissing the sacred minbar of Muhammad for blessings a permissible and pious act.<ref>Imam Ahmad, Al-'Ilal wa Ma'rifat Ar-Rijal, II, p. 492</ref> Ibn Hanbal later ordered that he be buried with Muhammad's hairs he possessed, "one on each eye and a third on his tongue."<ref name="Christopher Melchert 2001 p. 356"/>

Sufi scholar Gibril Haddad reports from al-Dhahabi that Ibn Hanbal "used to seek blessings from the relics of the Prophet."<ref name="Gibril F. Haddad 2007 p. 390"/> Citing the aforementioned report of Ibn Hanbal's devotion towards Muhammad's hair, al-Dhahabī then goes onto staunchly criticize whoever finds fault with the practices of tabarruk or seeking blessings from holy relics, saying: "Where is the quibbling critic of Imām Ahmad now? It is also authentically established that Abd Allāh [Ibn Hanbal's son] asked his father about those who touch the pommel of Muhammad's pulpit and touch the wall of his room, and he said: 'I do not see any harm in it.' May God protect us and you from the opinion of the dissenters and from innovations!"<ref>Al-Dhahabī, Siyar, IX.457; cited in Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 390</ref>

When asked by his son Abdullah about the legitimacy of touching and kissing Muhammad's grave in Medina, Ibn Hanbal is said to have approved of both these acts as being permissible according to sacred law.<ref>Ibn Hanbal, Al-'Ilal wa Ma'rifat Ar-Rijal, II, p. 492</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Jurisprudence

According to Hanbali scholar Najm al-Din Tufi (d. 716 A.H/ 1316 C.E), Ahmad ibn Hanbal did not formulate a legal theory; since "his entire concern was with hadith and its collection". More than a century after Ahmad's death, Hanbali legalism would emerge as a distinct school; due to the efforts of jurists like Abu Bakr al-Athram (d. 261 A.H/ 874 C.E), Harb al-Kirmani (d. 280 A.H/ 893 C.E), 'Abd Allah ibn Ahmad (d. 290 A.H/903 C.E), Abu Bakr al-Khallal (d. 311 A.H/ 923 C.E) etc., who compiled Ahmad's various legal verdicts.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Independent reasoning by muftis

Ibn Hanbal also had a strict criterion for ijtihad or independent reasoning in matters of law by muftis and the ulema.<ref name="Gibril F. Haddad 2007 p. 306">Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 306</ref> One story narrates that Ibn Hanbal was asked by Zakariyyā ibn Yaḥyā al-Ḍarīr about "how many memorized ḥadīths are sufficient for someone to be a mufti [meaning a mujtahid jurist or one capable of issuing independently reasoned fatwas]."<ref name="Gibril F. Haddad 2007 p. 306"/> According to the narrative, Zakariyyā asked: "Are one-hundred thousand sufficient?" to which Ibn Hanbal responded in the negative, with Zakariyyā asking if two-hundred thousand were, to which he received the same response from the jurist. Thus, Zakariyyā kept increasing the number until, at five-hundred thousand, Ibn Hanbal said: "I hope that that should be sufficient."<ref name="Gibril F. Haddad 2007 p. 306"/> As a result, it has been argued that Ibn Hanbal disapproved of independent reasoning by those muftis who were not absolute masters in law and jurisprudence.<ref name="Gibril F. Haddad 2007 p. 306"/>

Misusing ahadith

Ibn Hanbal narrated from Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā al-Qaṭṭān that the latter said: "If someone were to follow every rukhṣa [dispensation] that is in the ḥadīth, he would become a transgressor (fāsiq)."<ref>Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Al-'Ilal wa-Ma'rifat al-Rijāl, ed. Wasi Allah ibn Muhammad Abbas (Beirut: Mu'assasat al-Risāla, 1983), I:219; cited in Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 306</ref> It is believed that he quoted this on account of the vast number of forged traditions of Muhammad.<ref name="Gibril F. Haddad 2007 p. 306"/>

Private interpretation

Template:Further Ibn Hanbal appears to have been a formidable opponent of "private interpretation," and actually held that it was only the religious scholars who were qualified to properly interpret the holy texts.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> One of the creeds attributed to Ibn Hanbal opens with: "Praise be to God, who in every age and interval between prophets (fatra) elevated learned men possessing excellent qualities, who call upon him who goes astray (to return) to the right way."<ref name="ReferenceA"/> It has been pointed out that this particular creed "explicitly opposes the use of personal judgement (raʾy) ... [as basis] of jurisprudence."<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Ethics

Differences of opinion

Ibn Hanbal was praised both in his own life and afterwards for his "serene acceptance of juridical divergences among the various schools of Islamic law".<ref>Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 313</ref> According to later notable scholars of the Hanbali school like Ibn Aqil and Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibn Hanbal "considered every madhhab correct and abhorred that a jurist insist people follow his even if he considered them wrong and even if the truth is one in any given matter."<ref>Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 306; see Ibn Taymiyyah, Majmū' al-Fatāwā, 20:365</ref> As such, when Ibn Hanbal's student Ishāq ibn Bahlūl al-Anbārī had "compiled a book on juridical differences ... which he had named The Core of Divergence (Lubāb al-Ikhtilāf)," Ibn Hanbal advised him to name the work The Book of Leeway (Kitāb al-Sa'a) instead.<ref>Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 313; see Ibn Abī Ya'lā, Tabaqāt al-Hanābila, I.111, etc.</ref>

Works

File:Musnad Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal.jpg

Ibn Hanbal's most famous work, Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, which contains almost 40 thousand Hadith.

The following books are found in Ibn al-Nadim's Fihrist:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

• Usool as-Sunnah: "Foundations of the Prophetic Tradition (in Belief)"
• as-Sunnah: "The Prophet Tradition (in Belief)"
• Kitab al-`Ilal wa Ma'rifat al-Rijal: "The Book of Narrations Containing Hidden Flaws and of Knowledge of the Men (of Hadeeth)"
• Kitab al-Manasik: "The Book of the Rites of Hajj"
• Kitab al-Zuhd: "The Book of Abstinence"
• Kitab al-Iman: "The Book of Faith"
• Kitab al-Masa'il: "Issues in Fiqh"
• Kitab al-Ashribah: "The Book of Drinks"
• Kitab al-Fada'il Sahaba: "Virtues of the Companions"
• Kitab Tha'ah al-Rasul: "The Book of Obedience to the Messenger"
• Kitab Mansukh: "The Book of Abrogation"
• Kitab al-Fara'id: "The Book of Obligatory Duties"
• Kitab al-Radd `ala al-Zanadiqa wa'l-Jahmiyya: "Refutations of the Heretics and the Jahmites"
• Tafsir: "Exegesis"
• Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal

Historical views

Ibn Hanbal has been extensively praised for both his work in the field of prophetic tradition (hadith), jurisprudence, and his defense of orthodox Sunni theology. Abdul-Qadir Gilani stated that a Muslim could not truly be a wali of Allah except that they were upon Ibn Hanbal's creedTemplate:Citation needed; despite praise from his contemporaries as well, Yahya ibn Ma'in noted that Ibn Hanbal never boasted about his achievements.<ref name="Foundation">Foundations of the Sunnah, by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, pp. 51–173</ref>

Jurisprudence

There have some alleged views that his juristic views were not always accepted. Qur'anic exegete Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, who at one time had sought to study under Ibn Hanbal, later stated that he did not consider Ibn Hanbal a jurist and gave his views in the field no weight, describing him as an expert in prophetic tradition only.<ref>Yaqut al-Hamawi, Irshad, vol. 18, pp. 57–58.</ref> However this must be seen in context of its time, as Ibn Hanbal's school was still at its infancy and not followed by so many people yet compared to the other schools and the students had conflict with Al-Tabari's school.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Consider how the Masa'il of Imam Ahmad, i.e. the first written compilation of Ibn Hanbal's question and answers, was written by Abu Bakr al-Khallal who lived around the same time as Al-Tabari, and the first written compilation of Ibn Hanbal's fiqh was Al-Khiraqi who also lived around that same time. The more systematic teaching of Ibn Hanbal's jurisprudence in education facilities only occurred after that point.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Likewise, some consider how the Andalusian scholar Ibn 'Abd al-Barr did not include Ibn Hanbal or his views in his book The Hand-Picked Excellent Merits of the Three Great Jurisprudent Imâms about the main representatives of Sunni jurisprudence.<ref>Camilla Adang, This Day I have Perfected Your Religion For You: A Zahiri Conception of Religious Authority, p. 20. Taken from Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies. Ed. Gudrun Krämer and Sabine Schmidtke. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2006.</ref> However, Ibn 'Abd al-Barr actually has praised Ibn Hanbal's jurisprudence by saying "He is very powerful in the fiqh of the madhab of the ahl al-hadith and he is the Imam of the 'ulama of ahl al-hadith."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Be that as it may, the vast majority of other scholars do recognize Ibn Hanbal's prowess as a master jurist worthy of one whose methodology became foundation for its own school of jurisprudence. Imam Shafi'i said, among many other praises, "Ahmad is an Imam in eight fields: he is an imam in hadith, jurisprudence, Al-Qur'an, Al-Lughah, Al-Sunnah, Al-Zuhd, Al-Warak, and Al-Faqr".<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> Al-Dhahabi, one of the most major Islamic biographers, notes in his masterpiece Siyar A'lam Nubala that Ibn Hanbal's status in jurisprudence is alike Al-Layth ibn Sa'd, Malik ibn Anas, Al-Shafi'i, and Abu Yusuf.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Muhammad Abu Zahra, a contemporary Hanafi scholar, wrote a book titled Ibn Hanbal: Hayatuhu wa `Asruhu Ara'uhu wa Fiqhuh, and there he mentioned the heavy praises of various other classical scholars towards Ibn Hanbal and his school of jurisprudence.

Hadith

It is reported that Ibn Hanbal has reached the title of al Hafidh of Hadith according to Jamal al-Din al-Mizzi classification, as the title bestowment were approved by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani that Ibn Hanbal has memorized at least 750,000 hadith during his life, more than Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj who each memorized 300,000 hadith, and Abu Dawud al-Sijistani who memorized 500,000 hadith.<ref name="Ensiklopedia Imam Syafi'i">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Unreliable source? Abu Zur'ah mentions that Ibn Hanbal has memorized 1,000,000 hadith, 700,000 among them are related to jurisprudence.<ref name=":0" />

While according to the classification from Marfu' Hadith of Ibn Abbas which recorded by Al-Tabarani, Ibn Hanbal has reached the rank of Amir al-Mu'minin al-Hadith, a rank that only reached by very few Hadith scholars in history such as Malik ibn Anas, Yahya ibn Ma'in, Hammad ibn Salamah, Ibn al-Mubarak, and Al-Suyuti.<ref name="Ensiklopedia Imam Syafi'i" />Template:Unreliable source? Ibn Hanbal's Musnad is not, however, ranked among the Kutub al-Sittah, the six big collections of hadith.

Legacy

File:Ahmad ibn Hanbal Mosque.jpg

Ahmad Ibn Hanbal Mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia named after him.

Ahmad Ibn Hanbal is described as "one of the most venerated" intellectual figures in Islamic history,<ref name=":2" /> and one of the "fathers of Islam".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> During ninth century, he became a defining figure for Sunnism. People would assert as a badge of orthodoxy that their creed was same as Ahmad's.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

His school of tought, Hanbali school is dominant in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. During early 20th century, it became the official legal school in Saudi Arabia,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> altough in recent decades, there has been a gradual shift in the Saudi judiciary, with judges also increasingly incorporating opinions from other Sunni schools of jurisprudence.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In popular culture

• Ahmad ibn Hanbal was largely depicted in Qatar TV's 2017 Ramadan drama serial "The Imam" starring Mahyar Khaddour in the lead role.

Further reading

Primary

• Al-Ājurrī, Kitāb al-Sharīʿa, Beirut 2000
• Al-Dhahabī, Siyar aʿlām al-nubalāʾ, ed. Shuʿayb al-Arnaʾūṭ and Ḥusayn al-Asad, 25 vols., Beirut 1401–is 09/1981–88
• Ibn Abī Yaʿlā, Ṭabaqāt al-ḥanābila, ed. Muḥammad Ḥāmid al-Fiqī, 2 vols., Cairo 1952
• Ṣāliḥ b. Ḥanbal, Sīrat al-imām Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, ed. Fuʾād ʿAbd al-Munʿim Aḥmad, 2 vols. in one, Alexandria 1401/1981
• Ibn al-Jawzī, Manāqib al-imām Aḥmad, ed. ʿĀdil Nuwayhiḍ, Beirut 1393/19732
• Ibn Kathīr, al-Bidāya wa-l-nihāya, 16 vols., Cairo 1418/1998
• Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Ijtimāʿ al-Jayesh al-Islamiyah, ed. ʿAwwād ʿAbdallāh al-Muʿtaq, Riyadh 1419/1999
• Ibn Taymiyya, Darʾ taʿāruḍ al-ʿaql wa-l-naql, ed. Muḥammad Rashād Sālim, 11 vols., Riyadh 1979–81
• Abū Nuʿaym al-Iṣfahānī, Ḥilyat al-awliyāʾ wa-ṭabaqāt al-aṣfiyāʾ, 10 vols., Beirut 1409/1988
• Marʿī b. Yūsuf al-Karmī, al-Shahāda al-zakiyya fī thanāʾ al-aʾimma ʿalā Ibn Taymiyya, ed. Najm ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Khalaf, Beirut 1404/1984
• Abū Bakr al-Khallāl, al-Sunna, ed. ʿAṭiyya al-Zahrānī, 7 vols., Riyadh 1410/1989
• Abū Bakr Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. al-Ḥajjāj al-Marwazī, Kitāb al-waraʿ, ed. Samīr b. Amīn al-Zuhayrī, Riyadh 1418/1997.Template:Refend

Secondary

Books

• Abrahamov, Binyamin. Islamic Theology: Traditionalism and Rationalism. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998.
• Abū Zahra, Muḥammad. Ibn Ḥanbal: Ḥayātuhu wa-ʿAṣruhu wa-Fiqhuhu. Cairo: Dār al-Fikr al-ʿArabī, 1947.
• Cooperson, Michael. Classical Arabic Biography: The Heirs of the Prophets in the Age of al-Maʾmūn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
• Haddad, Gibril F. The Four Imams and Their Schools. London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007.
• Holtzman, Livnat. Predestination (al-Qaḍāʾ wa-l-Qadar) and Free Will (al-Ikhtiyār) as Reflected in the Works of the Neo-Ḥanbalites of the Fourteenth Century. PhD diss., Bar-Ilan University, 2003.
• Hurvitz, Nimrod. The Formation of Ḥanbalism: Piety into Power. London: Routledge, 2002.
• Makdisi, George. "Ḥanbalite Islam." In Studies on Islam, edited by Merlin L. Swartz, 216–264. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981.
• Melchert, Christopher. Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2006.
• ———. The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law, 9th–10th Centuries C.E. Leiden: Brill, 1997.
• Patton, Walter M. Aḥmed Ibn Ḥanbal and the Miḥna. Leiden: Brill, 1897.
• Siddiqi, Muḥammad Zubayr. Ḥadīth Literature: Its Origin, Development and Special Features. Edited and revised by Abdal Hakim Murad. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1993.
• Seale, Morris S. Muslim Theology: A Study of Origins with Reference to the Church Fathers. London: Luzac & Company, 1964.
• Spectorsky, Susan A. Chapters on Marriage and Divorce: Responses of Ibn Ḥanbal and Ibn Rāhwayh. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993.
• Watt, W. Montgomery. The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1973.
• ———. Islamic Creeds: A Selection. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994.Template:Refend

Journal Articles and Encyclopedias

• Abrahamov, Binyamin. "The Bi-lā Kayfa Doctrine and Its Foundations in Islamic Theology." Arabica 42, no. 1–3 (1995): 365–379.
• Cooperson, Michael. "Aḥmad Ibn Ḥanbal and Bishr al-Ḥāfī: A Case Study in Biographical Traditions." Studia Islamica 86 (1997): 71–101.
• Gimaret, Daniel. "Théories de l'acte humain dans l'école ḥanbalite." Bulletin d'Études Orientales 29 (1977): 157–178.
• Goldziher, Ignác. "Aḥmed b. Muḥammad b. Ḥanbal." In Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1st ed., edited by M. Th. Houtsma et al., Vol. 1, 272–277. Leiden: Brill, 1913.
• Hallaq, Wael B. "Was al-Shafiʿi the Master Architect of Islamic Jurisprudence?" International Journal of Middle East Studies 25, no. 4 (1993): 587–605.
• Holtzman, Livnat. "Human Choice, Divine Guidance and the Fiṭra Tradition: The Use of Ḥadīth in Theological Treatises by Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya." In Ibn Taymiyya and His Times, edited by Yossef Rapoport and Shahab Ahmed, 163–189. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2009.
• Hurvitz, Nimrod. "From Scholarly Circles to Mass Movements: The Formation of Legal Communities in Islamic Societies." American Historical Review 108, no. 4 (2003): 985–1008.
• Laoust, Henri. "Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal." In Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., edited by P. Bearman et al., Vol. 1, 272–277. Leiden: Brill, 1960.
• ———. "Les premières professions de foi ḥanbalites." In Mélanges Louis Massignon, Vol. 3, 7–35. Damascus: Institut Français de Damas, 1956–57.
• Madelung, Wilferd. "The Origins of the Controversy Concerning the Creation of the Koran." In Orientalia Hispanica, edited by J. M. Barral, Vol. 1, 504–525. Leiden: Brill, 1974.
• Melchert, Christopher. "The Adversaries of Aḥmad Ibn Ḥanbal." Arabica 44, no. 2 (1997): 234–253.
• ———. "The Ḥanābila and the Early Ṣūfīs." Arabica 48, no. 3 (2001): 352–367.
• ———. "The Musnad of Aḥmad Ibn Ḥanbal: How It Was Composed and What Distinguishes It from the Six Books." Der Islam 82, no. 1 (2005): 32–51.
• ———. "The Piety of the Hadith Folk." International Journal of Middle East Studies 34, no. 3 (2002): 425–439.
• Nawas, John A. "A Reexamination of Three Current Explanations for al-Maʾmūn's Introduction of the Miḥna." International Journal of Middle East Studies 26, no. 4 (1994): 615–629.
• Spectorsky, Susan A. "Aḥmad Ibn Ḥanbal's Fiqh." Journal of the American Oriental Society 102, no. 3 (1982): 461–465.
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