Al-Hallaj

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Mansour al-Hallaj (Template:Langx) or Mansour Hallaj (Template:Langx) (Template:Nowrap 26 March 922) (Hijri Template:Nowrap 309 AH) was a Persian mystic, poet, and teacher of Sufism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>John Arthur Garraty, Peter Gay, The Columbia History of the World, Harper & Row, 1981, page 288, Template:ISBN</ref><ref name="Iranica">Template:Harvnb</ref> He was best known for his saying, "I am the Truth" ("Ana'l-Ḥaqq"), which many saw as a claim to divinity, while others interpreted it as an instance of annihilation of the ego, which allowed God to speak through him. Al-Hallaj gained a wide following as a preacher before he became implicated in power struggles of the Abbasid court and was executed after a long period of confinement on religious and political charges. Although most of his Sufi contemporaries disapproved of his actions, Hallaj later became a major figure in the Sufi tradition.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

LifeEdit

Early yearsEdit

Al-Hallaj was born around 858 in Pars Province of the Abbasid Empire to a cotton-carder (Hallaj means "cotton-carder" in Arabic) in an Arabized town called al-Bayḍā'.<ref name="EI2-3-99">Template:Cite book</ref> His grandfather was a Zoroastrian magus.<ref name="Iranica" /> His father moved to a town in Wasit famous for its school of Quran reciters.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> Al-Hallaj memorized the Qur'an before he was 12 years old and would often retreat from worldly pursuits to join other mystics in study at the school of Sahl al-Tustari.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> During this period al-Hallaj lost his ability to speak Persian and later wrote exclusively in Arabic.<ref name="Iranica"/><ref name="EI2-3-99"/> Al-Hallaj was a Sunni Muslim.<ref name="religion"/><ref name="sunni"/>

When he was twenty, al-Hallaj moved to Basra, where he married and received his Sufi habit from 'Amr Makkī, although his lifelong and monogamous marriage later provoked jealousy and opposition from the latter.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Through his brother-in-law, al-Hallaj found himself in contact with a Zaydi Shi'i clan that supported the Zanj Rebellion.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/>

Al-Hallaj later went to Baghdad to consult the famous Sufi teacher Junayd of Baghdad, but he was tired of the conflict that existed between his father-in-law and 'Amr Makkī and he set out on a pilgrimage to Mecca, against the advice of Junayd, as soon as the Zanj Rebellion was crushed.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/>

Pilgrimages and travelsEdit

In Mecca he made a vow to remain for one year in the courtyard of the sanctuary in fasting and total silence.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> When he returned from Mecca, he laid down the Sufi tunic and adopted a "lay habit" in order to be able to preach more freely.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> At that time a number of Sunnis, including former Christians who would later become viziers at the Abbasid court, became his disciples, but other Sufis were scandalized, while some Muʿtazilis and Shias who held high posts in the government accused him of deception and incited the mob against him.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> Al-Hallaj left for eastern Iran and remained there for five years, preaching in the Arab colonies and fortified monasteries that housed volunteer fighters in the jihad, after which he was able to return and install his family in Baghdad.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/>

Al-Hallaj made his second pilgrimage to Mecca with four hundred disciples, where some Sufis, his former friends, accused him of sorcery and making a pact with the jinn.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> Afterwards he set out on a long voyage that took him to India and Turkestan beyond the frontiers of Islamic lands.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> About 290/902 he returned to Mecca for his final pilgrimage clad in an Indian loin-cloth and a patched garment over his shoulders.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> There he prayed to God to be made despised and rejected, so that God alone might grant grace to Himself through His servant's lips.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/>

Imprisonment and executionEdit

After returning to his family in Baghdad, al-Hallaj began making proclamations that aroused popular emotion and caused anxiety among the educated classes.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> These included avowing his burning love of God and his desire to "die accursed for the Community", and statements such as "O Muslims, save me from God"<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> ... "God has made my blood lawful to you: kill me".<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> It was at that time that al-Hallaj is said to have pronounced his famous shath "I am the Truth".<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> He was denounced at the court, but a Shafi'i jurist refused to condemn him, stating that spiritual inspiration was beyond his jurisdiction.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/>

File:Brooklyn Museum - The Execution of Mansur Hallaj From the Warren Hastings Album.jpg

The Execution of Mansur Hallaj. Watercolor from Mughal India circa 1600.<ref>Brooklyn Museum. The Execution of Mansur Hallaj, from the Warren Hastings Album.</ref>

Al-Hallaj's preaching had by now inspired a movement for moral and political reform in Baghdad.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> In 296/908 Sunni reformers made an unsuccessful attempt to depose the underage caliph al-Muqtadir.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> When he was restored, his Shi'i vizier unleashed anti-Hanbali repressions which prompted al-Hallaj to flee Baghdad, but three years later he was arrested, brought back, and put in prison, where he remained for nine years.<ref name="EI2-3-99"/>

The conditions of al-Hallaj's confinement varied depending on the relative sway his opponents and supporters held at the court,<ref name="EI2-3-99"/> but he was finally condemned to death in 922 on the charge of being a Qarmatian rebel who wished to destroy the Kaaba, because he had said "the important thing is to proceed seven times around the Kaaba of one's heart."<ref name="EI2-3-101">Template:Cite book</ref> According to another report, the pretext was his recommendation to build local replicas of the Kaaba for those who are unable to make the pilgrimage to Mecca.<ref name="Iranica"/> The queen-mother interceded with the caliph who initially revoked the execution order, but the intrigues of the vizier finally moved him to approve it.<ref name="EI2-3-101"/> On 23 Dhu 'l-Qa'da (March 25) trumpets announced his execution the next day.<ref name="EI2-3-101"/> The words he spoke during the last night in his cell are collected in Akhbar al-Hallaj.<ref name="EI2-3-101"/> Thousands of people witnessed his execution on the banks of the Tigris River. He was first punched in the face by his executioner, then lashed until unconscious, and then decapitatedTemplate:Sfn Template:Sfn or hanged.<ref name="Iranica"/> Witnesses reported that al-Hallaj's last words under torture were "all that matters for the ecstatic is that the Unique should reduce him to Unity", after which he recited the Quranic verse 42:18.<ref name="EI2-3-101"/> His body was doused in oil and set alight, and his ashes were then scattered into the river.<ref name="Iranica"/> A cenotaph was "quickly" built on the site of his execution, and "drew pilgrims for a millennium"Template:Sfn until being swept away by a Tigris flood during the 1920s.Template:Sfn

Some question whether al-Hallaj was executed for religious reasons as has been commonly assumed. According to Carl W. Ernst, the legal notion of blasphemy was not clearly defined in Islamic law and statements of this kind were treated inconsistently by legal authorities.<ref name="EI2"/> In practice, since apostasy was subsumed under the category of zandaqa, viewing heresy as a political crime, they were prosecuted only when it was politically convenient.<ref name="EI2"/> Sadakat Kadri points out that "it was far from conventional to punish heresy in the tenth century," and it is thought he would have been spared execution except that the vizier of caliph al-Muqtadir wished to discredit "certain figures who had associated themselves" with al-Hallaj.Template:Sfn (Previously al-Hallaj had been punished for talking about being at one with God by being shaved, pilloried and beaten with the flat of a sword, not executed because the Shafi'ite judge had ruled that his words were not "proof of disbelief.")Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Teachings and practicesEdit

Al-Hallaj addressed himself to popular audiences encouraging them to find God inside their own souls, which earned him the title of "the carder of innermost souls" (ḥallāj al-asrār).<ref name="Iranica"/> He preached without the traditional Sufi habit and used language familiar to the local Shi'i population.<ref name="Iranica"/> This may have given the impression that he was a Qarmatian missionary rather than a Sufi.<ref name="Iranica"/> His prayer to God to make him lost and despised can be regarded as typical for a Sufi seeking annihilation in God, although Louis Massignon has interpreted it as an expression of a desire to sacrifice himself as atonement on behalf of all Muslims.<ref name="Iranica"/> When al-Hallaj returned to Baghdad from his last pilgrimage to Mecca, he built a model of the Kaaba in his home for private worship.<ref name="Iranica"/>

Al-Hallaj was popularly credited with numerous supernatural acts. He was said to have "lit four hundred oil lamps in Jerusalem's Church of the Holy Sepulchre with his finger and extinguished an eternal flame in a Zoroastrian fire temple with the tug of a sleeve."Template:Sfn

Among other Sufis, al-Hallaj was an anomaly. Many Sufi masters felt that it was inappropriate to share mysticism with the masses, yet al-Hallaj openly did so in his writings and through his teachings. This was exacerbated by occasions when he would fall into trances which he attributed to being in the presence of God.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Hallaj was also accused of ḥulūl "incarnationism", the basis of which charge seems to be a disputed verse in which the author proclaims mystical union in terms of two spirits in one body. This position was criticized for not affirming union and unity strongly enough; there are two spirits left whereas the Sufi fana' texts speak of utter annihilation and annihilation in annihilation (the annihilation of the consciousness of annihilation), with only one actor, the deity, left.<ref name="Sells, Michael Anthony 1996">Sells, Michael Anthony. 1996. Early islamic mysticism: Sufi, Qurʼan, miraj, poetic and theological writings. New York: Paulist Press.</ref> Saer El-Jaichi has argued "that in speaking of the unity with the divine in terms of ḥulūl, Hallaj does not mean the fusion (or, mingling) of the divine and human substances." Rather, he has in mind "a heightened sense of awareness that culminates in the fulfillment of a spiritual – super-sensory – vision of God’s presence."<ref name="El-Jaichi, Saer 2018">Early Philosophical Sufism: The Neoplatonic Thought of Ḥusayn Ibn Manṣūr al-Ḥallāğ. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press.</ref>

Edward Said succinctly described al-Hallaj as "quasi-Christlike."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

There are conflicting reports about his most famous shaṭḥ, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Anā l-Ḥaqq "I am The Truth, " which was taken to mean that he was claiming to be God, since al-Ḥaqq "the Truth" is one of the names of God in Islam. While meditating, he uttered {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} The earliest report, coming from a hostile account of Basra grammarians, states that he said it in the mosque of al-Mansur, while testimonies that emerged decades later claimed that it was said in private during consultations with Junayd Baghdadi.<ref name="Iranica"/><ref name="EI2-3-99"/> Even though this utterance has become inseparably associated with his execution in the popular imagination, owing in part to its inclusion in his biography by Attar of Nishapur, the historical issues surrounding his execution are far more complex.<ref name="Iranica"/> In another controversial statement, al-Hallaj claimed "There is nothing wrapped in my turban but God, " and similarly he would point to his cloak and say, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Mā fī jubbatī illā l-Lāh "There is nothing in my cloak but God." He also wrote:<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

<poem>
I saw my Lord with the eye of the heart I asked, 'Who are You?' He replied, 'You'.</poem>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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In the 11th volume of the proto-Salafist Ibn Kathir's book al-Bidaya wa-l-Nihaya, it is said that al-Hallaj used to deceive people by putting on plays with his hired men under the guise of spiritual healing, and extorting money from them by cunning and secret, and it is also stated that, he came to India to learn and practice Indian magic.<ref name=abwn>البداية والنهاية/الجزء الحادي عشر/ثم دخلت سنة تسع وثلاثمائة</ref> Ibn Kathir also said in the book, "Abu Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami Amr ibn UthmanTemplate:Clarification needed said on the authority of al-Makki: He said: "I was walking with al-Hallaj in some streets of Makkah and I read the Qur'an. I was reciting, and he heard my recitation. And said: I can recite the same (recitation), so I left him".<ref name=abwn/> Narrated by Ibn Kathir, Abu Zari al-Tabari said, I heard Abu Ya'qub al-Aqta say: I gave my daughter in marriage to al-Husayn al-Hallaj when I saw his good conduct and diligence, and after a short time it became clear to me that He is a deceitful sorcerer, a hateful infidel.<ref name=abwn/> Ibn Kathir also said, "Muhammad ibn Yahya al-Razi said: I heard Amr ibn Uthman cursing him and saying: If I could have killed him, I would have killed him with my own hands. I said to him: What did the Shaykh get on him? He Said: "I read a verse of the Book of Allah and He said: I can compose like it and speak like it."<ref name=abwn/> Ibn Kathir also said, and Abu al-Qasim al-Qushayri mentioned in his letter in the chapter on preserving the hearts of the sheikhs: Amr bin Uthman entered the house of al-Hallaj when he was in Makkah, he (Hallaj) was writing something on paper and he (Amr) said to him : What is it? He (Hallaj) said: It is against the Qur'an. He said: Then he prayed for him and then he was not successful. Hallaj denied that Abu Ya'qub al-Aqta married him to his daughter.<ref name=abwn/>

WorksEdit

Al-Hallaj's principal works, all written in Arabic, included:<ref name="EI2-3-101"/>

Twenty-seven Riwāyāt (stories or narratives) collected by his disciples in about 290/902.
Kitāb al-Tawāsīn, a series of eleven short works.
Poems collected in Dīwān al-Hallāj.
Pronouncements including those of his last night collected in Akhbār al-Hallāj.

His best known written work is the Book of al-Tawasin ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}),<ref name="Tawasin">Template:Cite book</ref> in which he used line diagrams and symbols to help him convey mystical experiences that he could not express in words.<ref name="Iranica"/> Ṭawāsīn is the broken plural of the word ṭā-sīn which spells out the letters ṭā (ط) and sīn (س) placed for unknown reasons at the start of some surahs in the Quran.<ref name="Tawasin"/> The chapters vary in length and subject. Chapter 1 is an homage to Muhammad, for example, while Chapters 4 and 5 are treatments of his legendary ascent to Mi'raj. Chapter 6 is the longest of the chapters and is devoted to a dialogue of Satan (Iblis) and God, where Satan refuses to bow to Adam, although God asks him to do so. Satan's monotheistic claim—that he refused to bow before any other than God even at the risk of eternal rejection and torment—is combined with the lyrical language of the love-mad lover from the Majnun tradition, the lover whose loyalty is so total that there is no path for him to any "other than" the beloved.<ref name="Sells, Michael Anthony 1996"/> This passage explores the issues of mystical knowledge (ma'rifa) when it contradicts God's commands for although Iblis was disobeying God's commands, he was following God's will.<ref name="Sells, Michael Anthony 1996"/> His refusal is due, others argue, to a misconceived idea of God's uniqueness and because of his refusal to abandon himself to God in love. Hallaj criticizes the staleness of his adoration (Mason, 51–3). Al-Hallaj stated in this book:<ref>Kitaab al-Tawaaseen, Massignon Press, Paris, 1913, vi, 32.</ref>

<poem>
If you do not recognize God, at least recognize His sign, I am the creative truth because through the truth, I am eternal truth.</poem>{{#if:Al-HallajKitāb al-Tawāsīn|{{#if:|}}

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Classical era viewsEdit

Few figures in Islam provoked as much debate among classical commentators as al-Hallaj.<ref name="EI2-3-104">Template:Cite book</ref> The controversy cut across doctrinal categories.<ref name="EI2-3-104"/> In virtually every major current of juridical and theological thought (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i Hanbali, Maturidi, Ash'ari, and also Shia Jafari) one finds his detractors and others who accepted his legacy completely or justified his statements with some excuse.<ref name="EI2-3-104"/> His admirers among philosophers included Ibn Tufayl, Suhrawardi, and Mulla Sadra.<ref name="EI2-3-104"/>

Although the majority of early Sufi teachers condemned him, he was almost unanimously canonized by later generations of Sufis.<ref name="EI2-3-104"/> The principal Sufi interpretation of the shathiyat which took the form of "I am" sayings contrasted the permanence (baqā) of God with the mystical annihilation (fanā) of the individual ego, which made it possible for God to speak through the individual.<ref name="EI2">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Some Sufi authors claimed that such utterances were misquotations or attributed them to immaturity, madness or intoxication, while others regarded them as authentic expressions of spiritual states, even profoundest experience of divine realities, which should not be manifested to the unworthy.<ref name="EI2"/> Some of them, including al-Ghazali, showed ambivalence about their apparently blasphemous nature while admiring the spiritual status of their authors.<ref name="EI2"/> Rumi wrote: "When the pen (of authority) is in the hand of a traitor, unquestionably Mansur is on a gibbet"<ref>Mathnawi Book 2: line 1398 Translated by Nicholson p.293. Persian: چون قلم در دست غداري بود / لاجـرم منصور بـر داري بـود</ref>

Modern viewsEdit

The supporters of Mansur have interpreted his statement as meaning, "God has emptied me of everything but Himself. " According to them, Mansur never denied God's oneness and was a strict monotheist. However, he believed that the actions of man, when performed in total accordance with God's pleasure, lead to a blissful unification with Him.<ref>Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Thomson Gale, (2004), p.290</ref> Malayalam author Vaikom Muhammad Basheer draws parallel between "Anā al-Ḥaqq" and Aham Brahmasmi, the Upanishad Mahāvākya which means 'I am Brahman' (the Ultimate Reality in Hinduism). Basheer uses this term to intend God is found within one's 'self'. There was a belief among European historians that al-Hallaj was secretly a Christian, until the French scholar Louis Massignon presented his legacy in the context of Islamic mysticism in his four-volume work La Passion de Husayn ibn Mansûr Hallâj.<ref name="Iranica"/>

File:Burning and crucifixion of Mansur al-Hallaj, depiction from a 19th century Kashmiri manuscript.jpg

Burning and crucifixion of Mansur al-Hallaj, depiction from a 19th-century Kashmiri manuscript.

InfluenceEdit

Hallaj highly influenced Adi ibn Musafir.<ref>The Yezidis: The History of a Community, Culture and Religion, Birgül Açikyildiz, 2014, pp. 85, Template:ISBN</ref> Hallaj was revered in Adawiyya and later highly revered by Yezidis,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> who composed a few religious hymns devoted to him. Elements of his views expressed in Kitab al-Tawasin can be found in their religion.Template:Citation needed