Alfalfa
Template:Short description {{#invoke:other uses|otheruses}} Template:Use dmy dates Template:Speciesbox
Alfalfa (Template:IPAc-en) (Medicago sativa), also called lucerne, is a perennial flowering plant in the legume family Fabaceae. It is cultivated as an important forage crop in many countries around the world. It is used for grazing, hay, and silage, as well as a green manure and cover crop. The name alfalfa is used in North America. The name lucerne is more commonly used in the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The plant superficially resembles clover (a cousin in the same family), especially while young, when trifoliate leaves comprising round leaflets predominate. Later in maturity, leaflets are elongated. It has clusters of small purple flowers followed by fruits spiralled in two to three turns containing 10–20 seeds. Alfalfa is native to warmer temperate climates. It has been cultivated as livestock fodder since at least the era of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
DescriptionEdit
Alfalfa is a perennial forage legume which normally lives four to eight years, but can live more than 20 years, depending on variety and climate.<ref name="eb">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> The plant grows to a height of up to Template:Convert, and has a deep root system, sometimes growing to a depth of more than Template:Convert to reach groundwater. Typically the root system grows to a depth of Template:Convert depending on subsoil constraints.<ref name="eb" />
Alfalfa is a small-seeded crop and has a slowly growing seedling, but after several months of establishment, it forms a tough "crown" at the top of the root system. This crown contains shoot buds that enable alfalfa to regrow many times after being grazed or harvested.
Alfalfa has a tetraploid genome.<ref name="usda">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
{{#invoke:Gallery|gallery}}
EtymologyEdit
The word alfalfa is a Spanish modification of the Arabic word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=Merriam-Webster>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
EcologyEdit
Alfalfa is considered an insectary, a place where insects are reared, and has been proposed as helpful to other crops, such as cotton, if the two are interplanted, because the alfalfa harbours predatory and parasitic insects that would protect the other crop.<ref name=Leigh>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Harvesting the alfalfa by mowing the entire crop area destroys the insect population, but this can be avoided by mowing in strips so that part of the growth remains.<ref name=Leigh/>
Owing to its deep root system, it helps to improve soil nitrogen fertility and protect from soil erosion.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> This depth of root system, and perenniality of crowns that store carbohydrates as an energy reserve, make it very resilient, especially to droughts.
This plant exhibits autotoxicity, which means it is difficult for alfalfa seed to grow in existing stands of alfalfa.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Therefore, alfalfa fields are recommended to be rotated with other species (for example, corn or wheat) before reseeding.<ref name="krc">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The exact mechanism of autotoxicity is unclear, with medicarpins and phenols both seeming to play a role.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Levels of autotoxicity in soil depends on soil type (clay soils maintain autotoxicity for longer), cultivar and age of the previous crop. A soil assay can be used to measure autotoxicity.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Resistance to autotoxicity also varies by cultivar, a tolerant one being 'WL 656HQ'.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Pests and diseasesEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Like most plants, alfalfa can be attacked by various pests and pathogens. Diseases often have subtle symptoms which are easily misdiagnosed and can affect leaves, roots, stems and blossoms.<ref name="Gq2005">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Some pests, such as the alfalfa weevil, aphids, and potato leafhopper,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> can reduce alfalfa yields dramatically, particularly with the second cutting when weather is warmest.<ref name="osu">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Spotted alfalfa aphid, broadly spread in Australia, not only sucks sap but also injects salivary toxins into the leaves.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Registered insecticides or chemical controls are sometimes used to prevent this and labels will specify the withholding period before the forage crop can be grazed or cut for hay or silage.<ref name = "osu"/> Alfalfa is also susceptible to root rots, including Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, and Texas root rot.<ref>Phytophthora Root Rot of Alfalfa Key words: Plant Disease, Lucerne, black medic, birdsfoot trefoil, Phytophthora megasperma F. sp. medicaginis Template:Webarchive. Nu-distance.unl.edu (26 February 1997). Retrieved on 17 October 2011.</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Alfalfa is also susceptible to downy mildew caused by the oomycete species Peronospora aestivalis.<ref name=Constantinescu>Template:Cite journal</ref>
CultivationEdit
Alfalfa is widely grown throughout the world as forage for cattle, and is most often harvested as hay, but can also be made into silage, grazed, or fed as greenchop.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Alfalfa usually has the highest feeding value of all common hay crops. It is used less frequently as pasture.<ref name = "krc"/> When grown on soils where it is well-adapted, alfalfa is often the highest-yielding forage plant, but its primary benefit is the combination of high yield per hectare and high nutritional quality.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Its primary use is as feed for high-producing dairy cows, because of its high protein content and highly digestible fiber, and secondarily for beef cattle, horses, sheep, and goats.<ref name="uaex.edu">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Alfalfa hay is a widely used protein and fiber source for meat rabbits. In poultry diets, dehydrated alfalfa and alfalfa leaf concentrates are used for pigmenting eggs and meat, because of their high content in carotenoids, which are efficient for colouring egg yolk and body lipids.<ref name='feedipedia'>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Humans also eat alfalfa sprouts in salads and sandwiches.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Dehydrated alfalfa leaf is commercially available as a dietary supplement in several forms, such as tablets, powders and tea.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Fresh alfalfa can cause bloating in livestock, so care must be taken with livestock grazing on alfalfa because of this hazard.<ref>Medicago Sativa (Alfalfa) Template:Webarchive. Plantdex.com. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.</ref>
Like other legumes, its root nodules contain bacteria, Sinorhizobium meliloti, with the ability to fix nitrogen, producing a high-protein feed regardless of available nitrogen in the soil.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Its nitrogen-fixing ability (which increases soil nitrogen) and its use as an animal feed greatly improve agricultural efficiency.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Alfalfa can be sown in spring or fall, and does best on well-drained soils with a neutral pH of 6.8–7.5.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Alfalfa requires sustained levels of potassium and phosphorus to grow well.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is moderately sensitive to salt levels in both the soil and irrigation water, although it continues to be grown in the arid southwestern United States, where salinity is an emerging issue.<ref>G4555 Managing Manure on Alfalfa Hay | University of Missouri Extension Template:Webarchive. Extension.missouri.edu. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Soils low in fertility should be fertilized with manure or a chemical fertilizer, but correction of pH is particularly important.<ref>Fertilizing Alfalfa in Minnesota Template:Webarchive. Extension.umn.edu. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.</ref> Usually a seeding rate of Template:Convert is recommended, with differences based upon region, soil type, and seeding method.<ref>Alfalfa seeding rates: how much is too much? Template:Webarchive. Uwex.edu. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.</ref> A nurse crop is sometimes used, particularly for spring plantings, to reduce weed problems and soil erosion, but can lead to competition for light, water, and nutrients.<ref>MT200504.indd Template:Webarchive. (PDF) . Retrieved on 17 October 2011.</ref>
In most climates, alfalfa is cut three to four times a year, but it can be harvested up to 12 times per year in Arizona and southern California.<ref>Alfalfa Cutting Height Template:Webarchive. Uwex.edu (9 April 1999). Retrieved on 17 October 2011.</ref><ref name="cfaitc">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Total yields are typically around Template:Convert in temperate environments, but yields have been recorded up to Template:Convert.<ref name = "cfaitc"/> Yields vary with region, weather, and the crop's stage of maturity when cut. Later cuttings improve yield, but with reduced nutritional content.<ref>Alfalfa: The High-Quality Hay for Horses. (PDF) . Retrieved on 17 October 2011.</ref>
HistoryEdit
Alfalfa seems to have originated in south-central Asia, and was first cultivated in Central Asia.<ref name=Westgate>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Oakley>Template:Cite book</ref> According to Pliny (died 79 AD), it was introduced to Greece in about 490 BC when the Persians invaded Greek territory. Alfalfa cultivation is discussed in the fourth-century AD book Opus Agriculturae by Palladius, stating: "One sow-down lasts ten years. The crop may be cut four or six times a year ... A jugerum of it is abundantly sufficient for three horses all the year ... It may be given to cattle, but new provender is at first to be administered very sparingly, because it bloats up the cattle."<ref>Template:Cite book Links to online copies are listed at the foot of the Wikipedia article Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus Palladius.</ref>
The medieval Arabic agricultural writer Ibn al-'Awwam, who lived in Spain in the later 12th century, discussed how to cultivate alfalfa, which he called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration).<ref>Template:Cite book Links to online copies in French, Spanish, and Arabic are listed at the foot of the Wikipedia article Ibn al-'Awwam.</ref> A 13th-century general-purpose Arabic dictionary, Lisān al-'Arab, says that alfalfa is cultivated as an animal feed and consumed in both fresh and dried forms.<ref>Lisān al-'Arab is online at Baheth.info Template:Webarchive. Search for فصفصة in the dictionary. (The dictionary is also downloadable at Archive.org but that version doesn't have searchable text).</ref> It is from the Arabic that the Spanish name alfalfa was derived.<ref>Template:Cite book Template:Cite encyclopedia {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In the 16th century, Spanish colonizers introduced alfalfa to the Americas as fodder for their horses.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In the North American colonies of the eastern US in the 18th century, it was called "lucerne", and many trials at growing it were made, but generally without sufficiently successful results.<ref name=Oakley/> Relatively little is grown in the southeastern US today.<ref name="Crop Production 2012"/> Lucerne (or luzerne) is the name for alfalfa in Britain, Australia, France, Germany, and a number of other countries. Alfalfa seeds were imported to California from Chile in the 1850s. That was the beginning of a rapid and extensive introduction of the crop over the western US<ref name=Westgate/> and introduced the word "alfalfa" to the English language. Since North and South America now produce a large part of the world's output, the word "alfalfa" has been slowly entering other languages.
HarvestingEdit
When alfalfa is to be used as hay, it is usually cut and baled.<ref name="uaex">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Loose haystacks are still used in some areas, but bales are easier for use in transportation, storage, and feed.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Ideally, the first cutting should be taken at the bud stage, and the subsequent cuttings just as the field is beginning to flower, or one-tenth bloom because carbohydrates are at their highest.<ref>Template:Cite FTP</ref> When using farm equipment rather than hand-harvesting, a swather cuts the alfalfa and arranges it in windrows.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In areas where the alfalfa does not immediately dry out on its own, a machine known as a mower-conditioner is used to cut the hay.<ref name="uaex" /> The mower-conditioner has a set of rollers or flails that crimp and break the stems as they pass through the mower, making the alfalfa dry faster.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> After the alfalfa has dried, a tractor pulling a baler collects the hay into bales.
Several types of bales are commonly used for alfalfa. For small animals and individual horses, the alfalfa is baled into small, two-string bales, commonly named by the strands of string used to wrap it. Other bale sizes are three-string, and so on up to half-ton (six-string) "square" bales – actually rectangular, and typically about Template:Convert.<ref name = "usda"/> Small square bales weigh from Template:Convert depending on moisture, and can be easily hand separated into "flakes". Cattle ranches use large round bales, typically Template:Convert in diameter and weighing from Template:Convert. These bales can be placed in stable stacks or in large feeders for herds of horses or unrolled on the ground for large herds of cattle.<ref name = "usda"/> The bales can be loaded and stacked with a tractor using a spike, known as a bale spear that pierces the center of the bale,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Better source needed</ref> or they can be handled with a grapple (claw) on the tractor's front-end loader.
When used as feed for dairy cattle, alfalfa is often made into haylage by a process known as ensiling.<ref name="uaex.edu"/> Rather than being dried to make dry hay, the alfalfa is chopped finely and fermented in silos, trenches, or bags, where the oxygen supply can be limited to promote fermentation.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The anaerobic fermentation of alfalfa allows it to retain high nutrient levels similar to those of fresh forage, and is also more palatable to dairy cattle than dry hay.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In many cases, alfalfa silage is inoculated with different strains of microorganisms to improve the fermentation quality and aerobic stability of the silage.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ProductionEdit
During the early 2000s, alfalfa was the most cultivated forage legume in the world.<ref name=Reddy>Template:Cite book</ref> Worldwide production was around 436 million tons in 2006.<ref name=Reddy/> In 2009, alfalfa was grown on approximately Template:Convert worldwide; of this North America produced 41% (Template:Convert), Europe produced 25% (Template:Convert), South America produced 23% (Template:Convert), Asia produced 8% (Template:Convert), and Africa and Oceania produced the remainder.<ref name=Alfalfa_Ningxia>Template:Cite book</ref> The US was the largest alfalfa producer in the world by area in 2009, with Template:Convert, but considerable production area is found in Argentina (Template:Convert), Canada (Template:Convert), Russia (Template:Convert), Italy (Template:Convert), and China (Template:Convert).<ref name=Alfalfa_Ningxia/>
United StatesEdit
In the United States in 2012, the leading alfalfa-growing states were California, Idaho, and Montana.<ref name="Crop Production 2012">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Alfalfa is predominantly grown in the northern and western US;<ref name="Crop Production 2012"/> it can be grown in the southeastern US, but leaf and root diseases, poor soils, and a lack of well-adapted varieties are often limitations.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In California, varieties resistant to the spotted alfalfa aphid (Therioaphis maculata) are necessary, but even that is not always enough due to constant resistance evolution.<ref name="SAA-UC-ANR">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
AustraliaEdit
Lucerne grown in Australia prior to the 1970s was from seed brought from Great Britain in the early years of colonization, with production most successful in the Hunter and Peel river valleys. Hunter River cv. was the first lucerne variety developed for the Australian environment and was bred from selections of pre-existing lucerne stands in the Upper Hunter River (New South Wales) region.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Pest burdens from the spotted alfalfa aphid in the 1970s caused significant destruction of NSW lucerne paddocks, with surviving populations being used as parents for Hunterfield cv. (released 1983). This variety showed significant improvement of resistance to spotted alfalfa aphid.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Grazing is the most commonly used form of pasture management in Australia, with many varieties of lucerne specifically being bred for low rainfall, high grazing pressure.
New South Wales produces 40% of Australia's lucerne.<ref name="NSW" /> Due to the introduction of the spotted alfalfa aphid (Therioaphis maculata) in 1977 <ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> all varieties grown there must be resistant to it.<ref name="NSW">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> South Australia is home to 83% of all lucerne seed production in Australia.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Much of this seed industry is centred around the town of Keith, South Australia, also encompassing the neighbouring localities of Tintinara, Bordertown, Willalooka, Padthaway and Naracoorte.
Alfalfa and beesEdit
Alfalfa seed production requires the presence of pollinators when the fields of alfalfa are in bloom.<ref name = "usda"/> Alfalfa pollination is somewhat problematic, however, because western honey bees, the most commonly used pollinator, are less than ideal for this purpose; the pollen-carrying keel of the alfalfa flower trips and strikes pollinating bees on the head, which helps transfer the pollen to the foraging bee.<ref name = "usda"/> Western honey bees, however, do not like being struck in the head repeatedly and learn to defeat this action by drawing nectar from the side of the flower. The bees thus collect the nectar, but carry no pollen, so do not pollinate the next flower they visit.<ref name=scinews>Template:Cite journal</ref> Because older, experienced bees do not pollinate alfalfa well, most pollination is accomplished by young bees that have not yet learned the trick of robbing the flower without tripping the head-knocking keel.
When western honey bees are used to pollinate alfalfa, the beekeeper stocks the field at a very high rate to maximize the number of young bees.<ref name=scinews/> However, Western honey bee colonies may suffer protein stress when working alfalfa only, because alfalfa pollen protein is deficient in isoleucine, one of the amino acids essential in the diet of honeybee larvae.
Today, the alfalfa leafcutter bee (Megachile rotundata) is increasingly used to circumvent these problems.<ref name="pollination">Alfalfa Leafcutter Bee in California. Pollination.com. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.</ref> As a solitary but gregarious bee species, it does not build colonies or store honey, but is a very efficient pollinator of alfalfa flowers.<ref name = "pollination"/> Nesting is in individual tunnels in wooden or plastic material, supplied by the alfalfa seed growers.<ref name=scinews/> The leafcutter bees are used in the Pacific Northwest, while western honeybees dominate in California alfalfa seed production.<ref name=scinews/>
M. rotundata was unintentionally introduced into the US during the 1940s, and its management as a pollinator of alfalfa has led to a three-fold increase in seed production in the U.S. The synchronous emergence of the adult bees of this species during alfalfa blooming period in combination with such behaviors as gregarious nesting, and utilization of leaves and nesting materials that have been mass-produced by humans provide positive benefits for the use of these bees in pollinating alfalfa.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
A smaller amount of alfalfa produced for seed is pollinated by the alkali bee, mostly in the northwestern US. It is cultured in special beds near the fields. These bees also have their own problems. They are not portable like honey bees, and when fields are planted in new areas, the bees take several seasons to build up.<ref name=scinews/> Honey bees are still trucked to many of the fields at bloom time.
The rusty patched bumble bee, Bombus affinis, is important to the agricultural industry as well as for the pollination of alfalfa.<ref name="Evans">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is known that members of this species pollinate up to 65 different species of plants, and it is the primary pollinator of key dietary crops, such as cranberries, plums, apples, onions, and alfalfa.<ref name="Canada-2010">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
VarietiesEdit
Considerable research and development has been done with this important plant. Older cultivars such as 'Vernal' have been the standard for years, but many public and private varieties better adapted to particular climates are available.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Private companies release many new varieties each year in the US.<ref name = "msu">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Most varieties go dormant in the fall, with reduced growth in response to low temperatures and shorter days.<ref name = "msu"/> 'Nondormant' varieties that grow through the winter are planted in long-season environments such as Mexico, Arizona, and Southern California, whereas 'dormant' varieties are planted in the Upper Midwest, Canada, and the Northeast.<ref name = "msu"/> 'Nondormant' varieties can be higher-yielding, but they are susceptible to winter-kill in cold climates and have poorer persistence.<ref name = "msu"/>
Most alfalfa cultivars contain genetic material from sickle medick (M. falcata), a crop wild relative of alfalfa that naturally hybridizes with M. sativa to produce sand lucerne (M. sativa ssp. varia). This species may bear either the purple flowers of alfalfa or the yellow of sickle medick, and is so called for its ready growth in sandy soil.<ref>Joseph Elwyn Wing, Alfalfa Farming in the U.S. 79 (Sanders Publishing Co. 1912)".</ref> Traits for insect resistance have also been introduced from M. glomerata and M. prostrata, members of alfalfa's secondary gene pool.<ref>Vincent HA, Wiersema J, Dobbie SL, Kell SP, Fielder H, Castañeda Alvarez NP, Guarino L, Eastwood R, Leόn B, Maxted N. 2012. A prioritised crop wild relative inventory to help underpin global food security.Template:Dead link (in preparation).</ref>
Most of the improvements in alfalfa over the last decades have consisted of better disease resistance on poorly drained soils in wet years, better ability to overwinter in cold climates, and the production of more leaves. Multileaf alfalfa varieties have more than three leaflets per leaf.<ref>[1] Template:Webarchive, Leaf Morphology, Shoot Growth, and Gas Exchange of Multifoliolate Alfalfa Phenotypes.</ref>
Alfalfa growers or lucerne growers have a suite of varieties or cultivars to choose from in the seed marketplace and base their selection on a number of factors including the dormancy or activity rating, crown height, fit for purpose (i.e., hay production or grazing), disease resistance, insect pest resistance, forage yield, fine leafed varieties and a combination of many favourable attributes. Plant breeding efforts use scientific methodology and technology to strive for new improved varieties.
The L. Teweles Seed Company claimed it created the world's first hybrid alfalfa.<ref name="Cite C">Template:Cite newsTemplate:Dead link</ref>
Wisconsin and California and many other states publish alfalfa variety trial data. A complete listing of state variety testing data is provided by the North American Alfalfa Improvement Conference (NAAIC) State Listing, as well as additional detailed alfalfa genetic and variety data published by NAAIC.
Genetic modificationEdit
Roundup Ready alfalfa (RRA), a genetically modified variety, was released by Forage Genetics International in 2005. This was developed through the insertion of a gene owned by Monsanto Company that confers resistance to glyphosate, a broad-spectrum herbicide, also known as Roundup. Although most grassy and broadleaf plants, including ordinary alfalfa, are killed by Roundup, growers can spray fields of Roundup Ready alfalfa with the glyphosate herbicide and kill the weeds without harming the alfalfa crop.
Legal issues in the USEdit
In 2005, after completing a 28-page environmental assessment<ref name=NonregGrant>USDA/APHIS Environmental Assessment United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Biotechnology Regulatory Services, October 2004. Retrieved 13 November 2011</ref> the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) granted RRA nonregulated status<ref>Monsanto Co. and Forage Genetics International; Availability Determination of Nonregulated Status for Alfalfa Genetically Engineered for Tolerance to the Herbicide Glyphosate Federal Register, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 27 June 2005. Retrieved 12 November 2011</ref> under Code of Federal Regulations Title 7 Part 340,<ref>Code of Federal Regulations, Title 7: Agriculture Part 340—Introduction of Organisms and Products Altered or Produced Through Genetic Engineering Which Are Plant Pests or Which There Is Reason to Believe Are Plant Pests Template:Webarchive</ref> which regulates, among other things, the introduction (importation, interstate movement, or release into the environment) of organisms and products altered or produced through genetic engineering that are plant pests or that there is reason to believe are plant pests. Monsanto had to seek deregulation to conduct field trials of RRA, because the RRA contains a promoter sequence derived from the plant pathogen figwort mosaic virus.<ref name=NonregGrant /> The USDA granted the application for deregulation, stating that the RRA with its modifications: "(1) Exhibit no plant pathogenic properties; (2) are no more likely to become weedy than the nontransgenic parental line or other cultivated alfalfa; (3) are unlikely to increase the weediness potential of any other cultivated or wild species with which it can interbreed; (4) will not cause damage to raw or processed agricultural commodities; (5) will not harm threatened or endangered species or organisms that are beneficial to agriculture; and (6) should not reduce the ability to control pests and weeds in alfalfa or other crops."<ref name=NonregGrant /> Monsanto started selling RRA and within two years, more than 300,000 acres were devoted to the plant in the US.<ref name=OrloffPutnam>Steve Orloff and Dan Putnam Roundup Ready Alfalfa—What Have We Learned to Date? Template:Webarchive Proceedings, 2011 Western Alfalfa & Forage Conference, Las Vegas, NV, 11–13 December 2011</ref>
The granting of deregulation was opposed by many groups, including growers of non-GM alfalfa who were concerned about gene flow into their crops.<ref name=NonregGrant /> In 2006, the Center for Food Safety, a US non-governmental organization that is a critic of biotech crops, and others, challenged this deregulation in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California.<ref name = SupremeCourt>Monsanto et al v Geertson Seed Farms et al Template:Webarchive, Supreme Court of the United States, Decision no 09-475, 21 June 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2011</ref> Organic growers were concerned that the GM alfalfa could cross-pollinate with their organic alfalfa, making their crops unsalable in countries that ban the growing of GM crops.<ref>Supreme Court on Modified Foods: Who Won?, by Barry Estabrook, 'The Atlantic'. 22 June 2010. Retrieved 22 June 2010.</ref> The District Court ruled that the USDA's environmental assessment did not address two issues concerning RRA's effect on the environment,<ref>These two issues were: 1) evaluation of the risk that complete deregulation of RRA would lead to cross-pollination or the transmission of the gene conferring glyphosate tolerance from RRA to conventional alfalfa 2) evaluation of the risk that growing RRA might lead to the development of Roundup-resistant weeds.</ref> and in 2007, required the USDA to complete a much more extensive environmental impact statement (EIS). Until the EIS was completed, they banned further planting of RRA but allowed land already planted to continue.<ref name=OrloffPutnam /><ref>Memorandum and Order Re: Permanent Injunction Template:Webarchive United States District Court for Northern California, Case No C 06-01075 CR, 3 May 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2011</ref> The USDA proposed a partial deregulation of RRA but this was also rejected by the District Court.<ref name = SupremeCourt/> Planting of RRA was halted.
In June 2009, a divided three-judge panel on the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the District Court's decision.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> Monsanto and others appealed to the US Supreme Court.<ref name="nytimes.com">Supreme Court Lifts Ban on Planting GM Alfalfa by Jennifer Koons, NYT, 21 June 2010 (Retrieved 21 June 2010)</ref>
On 21 June 2010, in Monsanto Co. v. Geertson Seed Farms, the Supreme Court overturned the District Court decision to ban planting RRA nationwide as there was no evidence of irreparable injury.<ref>Monsanto Company v. Geertson Seed Farms at ScotusWiki – Briefs and Documents, etc.</ref> They ruled that the USDA could partially deregulate RRA before an EIS was completed. The Supreme Court did not consider the District Court's ruling disallowing RRA's deregulation and consequently RRA was still a regulated crop waiting for USDA's completion of an EIS.<ref name = SupremeCourt/>
This decision was welcomed by the American Farm Bureau Federation, Biotechnology Industry Organization, American Seed Trade Association, American Soybean Association, National Alfalfa and Forage Alliance, National Association of Wheat Growers, National Cotton Council, and National Potato Council.<ref>Staff (22 June 2010) Ag Groups Applaud Supreme Court Ruling On Biotech Alfalfa Medical News Today, Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> In July 2010, 75 members of Congress from both political parties sent a letter to Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack asking him to immediately allow limited planting of genetically engineered alfalfa.<ref>Staff (2010) Supreme Court rules in favor of RR alfalfa Seed World, Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref><ref>Letter by 75 Members of Congress to Vilsack Template:Webarchive Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> However the USDA did not issue interim deregulatory measures, instead focusing on completing the EIS. Their 2,300-page EIS, published in December 2010, concluded that RRA would not affect the environment.<ref>Glyphosate-Tolerant Alfalfa Events J101 and J163: Request for Nonregulated Status Final Environmental Impact Statement Template:Webarchive, United States Department of Agriculture, December 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2011</ref>
Three of the biggest natural food brands in the US lobbied for a partial deregulation of RRA,<ref>Staff (24 February 2011) Deregulation of genetically modified alfalfa stirs debate about 'coexistence' Template:Webarchive Ohio Farm Bureau Federation Inc., Retrieved 1 November 2011</ref> but in January 2011, despite protests from organic groups, Secretary Vilsack announced that the USDA had approved the unrestricted planting of genetically modified alfalfa and planting resumed.<ref>USDA - Roundup Ready® Alfalfa Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) Template:Webarchive, United States Department of Agriculture, December 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2011</ref><ref>Gilla, Carey and Doering, Christopher UPDATE 3-U.S. farmers get approval to plant GMO alfalfa Template:Webarchive Reuters US Edition, 27 January 2011. Retrieved 28 April 2011</ref><ref>Vilsack's USDA Officially Approves Controversial Genetifically Modified Alfalfa. Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 8 February 2011.</ref> Secretary Vilsack commented, "After conducting a thorough and transparent examination of alfalfa ... APHIS [Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service] has determined that [RRA] is as safe as traditionally bred alfalfa."<ref>USDA News Release No. 0035.11, 27 January 2011. USDA Announces Decision to Fully Deregulate Roundup Ready Alfalfa Template:Webarchive</ref> About Template:Convert of alfalfa were grown in the US, the fourth-biggest crop by acreage, of which about 1% were organic. Some biotechnology officials forecast that half of the US alfalfa acreage could eventually be planted with GM alfalfa.<ref name = wsj1/>
The National Corn Growers Association,<ref name=NCGA>Staff (20 January 2011) National Corn Growers Assn. supports deregulation of Roundup Ready alfalfa The Minnesota Farm Guide, Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> the American Farm Bureau Federation,<ref>Tannen, Benjamin (14 March 2011) USDA Fully Deregulates Genetically Modified Alfalfa Template:Webarchive University of Pennsylvania Law School, RegBlog News, Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> and the Council for Biotech Information<ref>Staff (27 January 2011) BIO Applauds USDA Decision to Deregulate Biotech Alfalfa Template:Webarchive Biotech Now, Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> warmly applauded this decision. Christine Bushway, CEO of the Organic Trade Association, said, "A lot of people are shell-shocked. While we feel Secretary Vilsack worked on this issue, which is progress, this decision puts our organic farmers at risk."<ref name = wsj1>Tomson, Bill and Kilman, Scott USDA Won't Impose Restrictions on Biotech Alfalfa Crop Wall Street Journal, 27 January 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2011</ref> The Organic Trade Association issued a press release in 2011 saying that the USDA recognized the impact that cross-contamination could have on organic alfalfa and urged them to place restrictions to minimize any such contamination.<ref>Organic Trade Association's Organic Newsroom: Organic industry wants farmers protected in the marketplace Template:Webarchive. Organicnewsroom.com (20 January 2011). Retrieved on 8 February 2011.</ref> However, organic farming groups, organic food outlets, and activists responded by publishing an open letter saying that planting the "alfalfa without any restrictions flies in the face of the interests of conventional and organic farmers, preservation of the environment, and consumer choice".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In addition to House Agriculture Committee Chairman Frank Lucas, Senator Debbie Stabenow (Chairwoman of the Senate Agriculture Committee) and Senator Richard Lugar strongly supported the decision, respectively stating that it would give growers "the green light to begin planting an abundant, affordable and safe crop"<ref name="Stabenow">Staff (January 2011) Senate Ag's Stabenow, House Ag's Lucas welcome biotech alfalfa deregulation Agri-Pulse Communications Inc., Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> and give farmers and consumers the "choice ... in planting or purchasing food grown with GM technology, conventionally, or organically".<ref>Harsch, John H. (27 January 2011) Sen. Lugar strongly supports GE alfalfa deregulation, to avoid 'government control' Agri-Pulse Communications Inc., Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> In a joint statement, US Senator Patrick Leahy and Representative Peter DeFazio said the USDA had the "opportunity to address the concerns of all farmers", but instead "surrender[ed] to business as usual for the biotech industry".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In March 2011, the non-profit Center for Food Safety appealed the deregulation decision,<ref>Maria Rodale: We Stand in Opposition to GE Alfalfa. Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 8 February 2011.</ref> which the District Court for Northern California rejected in 2012.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Safety concernsEdit
Alfalfa sprouts may contain microbiological pathogens, mainly from Salmonella or E. coli, which have caused numerous food product recalls and illness outbreaks, putting sprouts into a "high risk" category for food safety.<ref name="ontario" /><ref name="cdc">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="baker">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> People with weakened immune systems, such as the elderly, pregnant women, or those taking prescription drugs affecting the immune system, should not eat sprouts.<ref name="baker" />
With long-term human consumption of alfalfa seeds, several safety concerns and medication interactions may result, including possible reactions similar to lupus erythematosus, an autoimmune disease.<ref name="mlp">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Other concerns are for women during pregnancy or breast-feeding, hormone-sensitive conditions (such as breast, uterine, and ovarian cancers), and for people with diabetes.<ref name="mlp" /> Alfalfa may interact with warfarin (e.g. Coumadin), birth control pills (contraceptive drugs), and estrogens.<ref name="mlp" />
Edit
Raw alfalfa seeds and sprouts are a source of the amino acid canavanine. Much of the canavanine is converted into other amino acids during germination, so sprouts contain much less canavanine than unsprouted seeds.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Canavanine competes with arginine, resulting in the synthesis of dysfunctional proteins. Raw unsprouted alfalfa has toxic effects in primates, including humans, which can result in lupus-like symptoms and other immunological diseases in susceptible individuals.<ref name="pmid6178289">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="pmid1862241">Template:Cite journal</ref> Stopping consumption of alfalfa seeds can reverse the effects.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Phytoestrogens and effect on livestock fertilityEdit
Alfalfa, like other leguminous crops, is a source of phytoestrogens,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> including spinasterol,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> coumestrol, and coumestan.<ref name=CPPIS>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Because of this, grazing on alfalfa during breeding can cause reduced fertility in sheep and in dairy cattle if not effectively managed.<ref name=CPPIS/><ref name="Fields-2019">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Coumestrol levels in alfalfa have been shown to be elevated by fungal infection, but not significantly under drought stress<ref>Fields, R.L., D.J. Moot, and G.K. Barrell. 2017. Coumestrol content of lucerne under drought stress, Proceedings of the 18th Australian Society of Agronomy Conference, Ballarat, Australia.</ref> or aphid infestation.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Grazing management can be utilised to mitigate the effects of coumestrol on ewe reproductive performance, with full recovery after removal from alfalfa.<ref name="Fields-2019" /> Coumestrol levels in unirrigated crops can be predicted practically using weather variables.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
NutritionEdit
Raw alfalfa seed sprouts are 93% water, 2% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and contain negligible fat. In a Template:Convert reference amount, raw alfalfa sprouts supply Template:Convert of food energy and 29% of the Daily Value of vitamin K. They are a moderate source of vitamin C, some B vitamins, phosphorus, and zinc.
SproutsEdit
Sprouting alfalfa seeds is the process of germinating seeds at the immature stage for use as a garnish on various food preparations, such as salads. Although sprouts may be grown in soil, they are more commonly germinated in a soilless medium using drums, trays or racks.<ref name="ontario">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
{{#invoke:Gallery|gallery}}
ReferencesEdit
External linksEdit
Template:Sister project Template:Sister project Template:Sister project Template:Sister project Template:Sister project Template:Taxonbar Template:Authority control