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Apocynaceae

Article Discussion

Template:Short description Template:Further Template:Automatic taxobox

Apocynaceae (Template:IPAc-en, from Apocynum, Greek for "dog-away") is a family of flowering plants that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, stem succulents, and vines, commonly known as the dogbane family,<ref name="BotanicalReview2000">Template:Cite journal</ref> because some taxa were used as dog poison.Template:When?<ref name=Simpson/> Members of the family are native to the European, Asian, African, Australian, and American tropics or subtropics, with some temperate members.<ref name="BotanicalReview2000"/> The former family Asclepiadaceae (now known as Asclepiadoideae) is considered a subfamily of Apocynaceae and contains 348 genera. A list of Apocynaceae genera may be found here.

Many species are tall trees found in tropical forests, but some grow in tropical dry (xeric) environments. Also perennial herbs from temperate zones occur. Many of these plants have milky latex, and many species are poisonous if ingested, the family being rich in genera containing alkaloids and cardiac glycosides, those containing the latter often finding use as arrow poisons. Some genera of Apocynaceae, such as Adenium, bleed clear sap without latex when damaged, and others, such as Pachypodium, have milky latex apart from their sap.

DescriptionEdit

File:Alstonia scholaris by kadavoor.JPG
Alstonia scholaris, arrangement of leaves

Growth patternEdit

The dogbane/milkweed<ref name=Simpson/> family includes annual plants, perennial herbs, stem succulents, woody shrubs, trees, or vines.<ref name="BotanicalReview2000" /><ref name=Jepson/> Most exude a milky latex when cut.<ref>"Apocynaceae usually have copious latex and the leaves are often opposite and with colleters...", retrieved 3/10/18 from ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY WEBSITE, version 13 http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/</ref>

Leaves and stemsEdit

Leaves are simple. They may appear one at a time (singly) with each occurrence on alternating sides of the stem,<ref name=Jepson>Apocynaceae, Thomas Rosatti, Jepson Herbarium</ref> but usually occur in pairs (and rarely in whorls).<ref name="BotanicalReview2000" /> When paired, they occur on opposite sides of the stem (opposite), with each pair occurring at an angle rotated 90° to the pair below it (decussate).

There is no stipule (a small leaf-like structure at the base of the leaf stem), or stipules are small and sometimes finger-like.<ref name=Jepson/>

Inflorescence and fruitEdit

File:Rhigospira quadrangularis On the Apocynaceae of South America, with some preliminary remarks on the whole family (1878) (20720691296) (cropped).jpg
Rhigospira quadrangularis, portion of a plant. 1) the inflorescence and 2) a flower, to scale; 3) corolla in bud, showing the pyramidal form of the erect segments in aestivation and 4) the same cut open when expanded, showing their simple sinistrorse convolution and the nearly basal position of the stamens, both magnified; 5) the calyx, disk, very short style, clavuncle, and stigmata, to scale; 6) the same, magnified; 7) a stamen, much magnified.<ref name=miers>Template:Cite book</ref>

Flowers have radial symmetry (actinomorphic),<ref name="BotanicalReview2000" /> and are borne in heads that are cymes or racemes, or are solitary in axils.<ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> They are perfect (bisexual), with a synsepalous, five-lobed calyx united into a tube at the base.<ref name="BotanicalReview2000" /><ref name=":0" /> Inflorescences are terminal or axillary. Five petals are united into a tube with four or five epipetalous stamens.<ref name="BotanicalReview2000" /> The style head is swollen.<ref name=":1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The pollen is transported in foam.<ref name=":1" /> The ovary is usually superior, bicarpellary, and apocarpous,<ref name="BotanicalReview2000" /> with a common fused style and stigma. (Fig. 5. and Fig.6. in the illustration of Rhigospira quadrangularis show a typical tripartite style which divides into three zones (specialised for pollen deposition, viscin secretion, and the reception of pollen).<ref name=campbell>Template:Cite book</ref>

The fruit is a drupe, a berry, a capsule, or a (frequently paired) follicle.<ref name="BotanicalReview2000" /> The seeds are often winged or have appendages of long silky hairs.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

TaxonomyEdit

Template:Further As of 2012, the family was described as comprising some 5,100 species, in five subfamilies:<ref name="NazarChase13">Nazia Nazar, David J. Goyder, James J. Clarkson, Tariq Mahmood and Mark W. Chase, 2013, "The taxonomy and systematics of Apocynaceae: Where we stand in 2012," Bot. J. Linn. Soc., 171(3, March), pp. 482–490, see [1], accessed 22 June 2015.</ref>

The former family Asclepiadaceae is included in Apocynaceae according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III (APG III) modern, largely molecular-based system of flowering plant taxonomy.<ref name="APGIII">Template:Cite journal</ref> An updated classification, including 366 genera, 25 tribes, and 49 subtribes, was published in 2014.<ref name=Endress2014>Template:Cite journal</ref>

376 genera are currently accepted.<ref name = powo>Apocynaceae Juss. Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 24 July 2023.</ref>

Distribution and habitatEdit

Template:Verify section Species in this family are distributed mainly in tropical regions:

  • In the tropical forests and swamps of Indomalaya: small to very tall evergreen trees up to Template:Cvt tall, often with buttress roots, such as Alstonia and Dyera.
  • In Australia: occurs in all habitats; about 46 genera and about 200 species, including about 20 naturalised; herbs, vines, shrubs and trees.Template:R
  • In deciduous forests of Africa, India, and Indo-China: smaller trees such as Carissa, Wrightia, and Holarrhena
  • In tropical America, India, Myanmar, and Malaya: evergreen trees and shrubs, such as Rauvolfia, Tabernaemontana, and Acokanthera.
  • In Central America: Plumeria, or the frangipani, with its waxy white or pink flowers and a sweet scent.
  • In South America, Africa, and Madagascar: many lianas, such as Landolphia
  • In the Mediterranean region: Nerium, with the well-known oleander or be-still tree (Nerium oleander), and Apple of Sodom (Calotropis procera), with other (Calotropis) species extending into South Asia.
  • The only genera found in temperate Europe away from the Mediterranean are Vinca (Rauvolfioideae) and Vincetoxicum (Asclepiadoideae). Also Asclepias syriaca is an invasive weed (e. g., in many areas of Ukraine).
  • In North America: Apocynum, dogbane or Indian hemp, including Apocynum cannabinum, a traditional source of fiber. Also the bluestars, Amsonia, herbaceous perennials of upright habit, grown as ornamental plants for their attractive flowers.
  • In continental southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Eswatini, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe) and Madagascar, except for the humid evergreen forest of the eastern side of Madagascar, and never above Template:Cvt for the entire island: Pachypodium and Fockea.

EcologyEdit

Several genera are preferred larval host plants for the Queen Butterfly (Danaus gilippus).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

ToxicityEdit

Many species of plants from the family Apocynaceae have some toxicity, with some being extremely poisonous if parts are ingested, or if they are not handled properly. Genera containing cardiac glycosides—Cerbera, Nerium, Asclepias, Cascabela, Strophanthus,<ref name=":0" /> Acokanthera,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Apocynum,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Thevetia,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> etc.—have therapeutic ranges, but are often associated with accidental poisonings, in many cases lethal (see below). Alkaloid-producing species like Rauvolfia serpentina, Catharanthus roseus, and Tabernanthe iboga are likewise the source of compounds with therapeutic ranges, but which have significant associated toxicities if not taken in appropriate doses and in controlled fashion. (See below)

UsesEdit

Several members of the family Apocynaceae have had economic uses in the past. Several are sources of important natural products—pharmacologic tool compounds and drug research candidates, and in some cases actual prescription drugs. Cardiac glycosides, which affect heart function, are a ready example. Genera studied and known to contain such glycosides include Acokanthera, Apocynum, Cerbera, Nerium, Thevetia and Strophanthus. Rauvolfia serpentina (Indian snakeroot) contains the alkaloid reserpine, which has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic drug but its adverse effects limit its clinical use.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Catharanthus roseus yields alkaloids used in the treatment of cancer.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Tabernanthe iboga, Voacanga africana, and Tabernaemontana undulata contain the alkaloid ibogaine, which is a psychedelic drug which may help with drug addiction, but which has significant adverse effects,<ref name="Koe2015">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> with ibogaine being both cardiotoxic and neurotoxic.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Ajmalicine, an alkaloid found in Rauvolfia spp., Catharanthus roseus, and Mitragyna speciosa,<ref name="isbn0-306-45465-3">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="pmid17401876">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="pmid19731590">Template:Cite journal</ref> is an antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure.<ref name="isbn0-306-45465-3" />

Many genera are grown as ornamental plants, including Amsonia (bluestar),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Nerium (oleander),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Vinca (periwinkle),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Carissa (Natal plum),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Allamanda (golden trumpet),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Plumeria (frangipani),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Thevetia,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Mandevilla (Savannah flower),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and Adenium (desert-rose).<ref>Archived at GhostarchiveTemplate:Cbignore and the Wayback MachineTemplate:Cbignore: Template:CitationTemplate:Cbignore</ref>

In addition, the genera Landolphia, Carpodinus, and Mascarenhasia have been used as commercial sources of inferior rubber.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> (See Congo rubber)

There are limited dietary uses of plants from this family. The flower of Echites panduratus (common name: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is edible.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Carissa (Natal plum) produces an edible fruit, but all other parts of the plant are poisonous.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The genus Apocynum was reportedly used as a source of fiber by Native Americans.<ref name=coville>Template:Cite journal</ref> The aromatic fruit juice from Saba comorensis (syn. Landolphia comorensis, the Bungo or Mbungo fruit) is used as a drink.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Finally, ethnopharmacologic and ethnotoxicologic uses are also known. The roots of Tabernanthe iboga and certain Voacanga species have traditionally been used ceremonially as hallucinogens in Africa. The ibogaine-type alkaloids responsible for the psychoactivity of these plants have been studied with regard to the treatment of drug addiction.<ref name="Koe2015" /> The juice of Acokanthera species such as A. venenata and the milky juice of the Namibian Pachypodium have been used as poison for arrow tips.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Many species are ornamental in gardens or as houseplants.

GalleryEdit

FlowersEdit

FruitsEdit

Pachycaul speciesEdit

  • Desert rose Adenium obesum in Tanzania 2259 Nevit.jpg

    Adenium obesum growth habit of wild specimens, Tanzania

  • Desert Rose (Adenium obesum), Ghana.jpg

    Adenium obesum close-up of colossal specimen, Ghana

  • Desert Rose, Socotra Is (17131661372).jpg

    Adenium obesum trunk of extreme pachycaul specimen, Socotra

  • Pachypodium lamerei 01.jpg

    Pachypodium lamerei wild specimen of maximum height (approx Template:Convert) attained by species

  • Pachypodium lamieri1MTFL.jpg

    Pachypodium lamerei in flower

  • PachypodiumLamerei.jpg

    Pachypodium lamerei mature, multi-trunked specimen cultivated in glasshouse

  • Pachypodium namaquanum00.jpg

    Pachypodium namaquanum

ReferencesEdit

Template:Reflist

External linksEdit

Further readingEdit

  • A review on antimicrobial botanicals, phytochemicals and natural resistance modifying agents from Apocynaceae family: Possible therapeutic approaches against multidrug resistance in pathogenic microorganisms. {{#invoke:doi|main}}

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