Aristobulus I

Template:Infobox royalty Judah Aristobulus I, or Aristobulus I (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx), was the High Priest of Israel and the first Hasmonean king of Judaea, reigning from 104 BCE until his death the following year. He was the eldest of the five sons of John Hyrcanus, the previous leader.Template:Sfn The Roman-Jewish historian Josephus states that he was the first Jew in "four hundred and eighty-three years and three months" to have established a monarchy since the return from the Babylonian captivity.Template:Sfn Aristobulus was the first Hebrew king to claim both the high priesthood and the kingship. The Sadducees and the Essenes were not concerned about Aristobulus taking the title of king, but the Pharisees, believing that the kingship could only be held by the descendants of the Davidic line, strongly opposed this. They launched a massive rebellion, but Aristobulus died before any attempt to depose him could be made.Template:Sfn

The major sources on Aristobulus's life from antiquity are Josephus's The Jewish War and Antiquities of the Jews.Template:Sfn His reign is particularly noted for the Judaization of Galilee and the native Semitic people called the Ituraeans. Josephus, quoting from Strabo's Historica Hypomnemata, described Aristobulus's regime as kindly and "very serviceable to the Jews" on account of his conquests and the integration of "a portion of the Ituraean nation whom he joined to them by the bond of circumcision."Template:Sfn

Etymology

The name Aristobulus is of Greek origin and is an epithet meaning "best-advising."Template:Sfn Aristobulus I was the first Hasmonean to adopt the name,Template:Sfn but his Hebrew name was Judah.Template:Sfn He was also referred to as Philhellene, meaning he was an admirer of Greek culture.Template:Sfn Josephus does not explain why he was called this.Template:Sfn

Early campaigns and monarchy established

Aristobulus and his brother Antigonus were entrusted by their father, John Hyrcanus, with the conquest of Samaria. They laid siege to the city, and when the inhabitants requested aid from the Seleucid Empire, they defeated a relief army led by Antiochus IX Cyzicenus.Template:Sfn Antiochus successfully escaped to Scythopolis, but the brothers captured Samaria towards the end of John's reign, razing the city and enslaving its inhabitants.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Their forces subsequently captured Scythopolis and the entire region south of Mount Carmel.Template:Sfn

According to John Hyrcanus's instructions, the country was to be placed in the hands of his wife after his death, and Aristobulus was originally to receive only the high priesthood. Instead, Aristobulus had his mother imprisoned, where she starved to death, thereby securing for himself both the high priesthood and the kingship.<ref name=JWA>Jewish Women’s Archive website, Hasmonean Women</ref> He then imprisoned all of his brothers, except for Antigonus, to protect himself from possible familial retaliation.Template:Sfn

Josephus does not name Hyrcanus's wife.Template:Sfn He states that Aristobulus and Antigonus were the eldest of the five brothers, with Aristobulus being the firstborn. The other three were Alexander Jannaeus, Absalom, and a fifth brother, whom Josephus mentions but does not name.Template:Sfn

Conquest of Galilee

Aristobulus went to war against the Ituraeans and took territory from them. The conquered Ituraeans were compelled to accept Jewish law and circumcision to remain on their land.Template:Sfn The Ituraeans were an Arab tribe that expanded southwards from the Lebanese Beq'a into the Golan Heights and Mount Hermon in the fourth century BCE following the collapse of the Seleucid Empire.Template:Sfn They are first mentioned in Josephus's Antiquities 13.319 during Aristobulus I's conquest, where Josephus writes, "He brought over to them a portion of the Ituraean nation."Template:Sfn

Josephus's Antiquities 13.319 is a quote from Strabo's Historica Hypomnemata, originally written by Timagenes, and states, "This man was a kindly person and very serviceable to the Jews, for he acquired additional territory for them and brought over to them a portion of the Ituraean nation, whom he joined to them by the bond of circumcision." This passage has been generally accepted as evidence of Josephus's reliance on Strabo and Timagenes's writings.Template:Sfn The exact location of the confrontation and the territory that the Ituraeans occupied are unknown. Most scholars assume the Ituraean territory to be northern Galilee.Template:Sfn According to Kenneth Atkinson, there is no evidence of forced Judaization in Galilee during Aristobulus's reign.Template:Sfn

Death and successor

Feast of Tabernacles

With sudden abdominal pains, Aristobulus's health gradually deteriorated, compelling him to return to his palace during the festival of Sukkot. His brother Antigonus eventually returned to Jerusalem to celebrate the festival at the Temple. Unfamiliar with ceremonial festivities, Antigonus arrived armed with escorting soldiers.Template:Sfn According to Kenneth Atkinson, Antigonus had returned from a successful, unspecified military campaign. He further states that Josephus did not mention the location of the campaign. Atkinson presumes it to be Galilee since Antigonus had fine armour and military decorations procured in the region, as stated in Josephus's Jewish War 1.76.Template:Sfn

In his morbid state, Aristobulus fell prey to the factious influence of his wife, Queen Salome Alexandra, and conspirators. They had spread rumours about Antigonus attempting to seize the throne once he was seen in armour at the festival. Wearing a military uniform was considered unorthodox during the occasion.Template:Sfn Aristobulus was then informed by "evil men" that his brother was sending soldiers to murder him, and Aristobulus became estranged from Antigonus after hearing this rumour. Believing the report, he lowered himself into the fortified citadel Baris, which was besieged and had defensive towers.Template:Sfn

Death of Antigonus and Aristobulus

The queen, contemplating the possibility of being tortured and killed if Antigonus became king once Aristobulus died from his deteriorating health, deliberately advised Antigonus to enter, armed, into a meeting with his brother. However, he had been summoned to address suspicions of conspiracy against his brother's life. The queen had bribed the messenger whom Aristobulus had sent to his brother; she altered the original message. Instead of having Antigonus arrive at his brother's palace unarmed, she suggested that Antigonus should wear his new body armour, which he had made in Galilee as a presentation upon Aristobulus's request. Incensed with suspicion at finding his brother armed, Aristobulus killed him. In frantic regret at this rash execution, Aristobulus's health drastically declined until his death shortly thereafter.Template:Sfn Queen Salome then released Aristobulus's brothers, selecting Alexander Jannaeus as the next king.Template:Sfn

Coinage

The minting of Hasmonean coins did not commence until the leadership of John Hyrcanus. Like his father, Aristobulus minted his coins solely with the title of high priesthood, using Hebrew inscriptions. It was not until Alexander Jannaeus that both the roles of kingship and high priesthood were minted onto the coins.Template:Sfn

The majority of Aristobulus's coins were discovered primarily in the regions of Galilee and Golan, with the largest quantity originating from Gamla.Template:Sfn By 2016, archaeologists had unearthed thirty coins at Gamla, the largest quantity to date.Template:Sfn Most of these coins were minted during his actual reign, while a small number were minted afterward.Template:Sfn

The numismatic evidence does not suggest that Aristobulus assumed the title of king.Template:Sfn There is also the possibility that the coins could be attributed to Aristobulus II (67–63 BCE), who was also a king and high priest.Template:Sfn However, the longstanding debate has leaned more towards Aristobulus I, as new numismatic evidence indicates that Aristobulus I had his coins minted with the name "Judah".Template:Sfn

Due to his short reign of one year, only a small number of coins bearing the name "Judah" are available. Ya'akov Meshorer categorised them into two groups. Twenty coins are inscribed with "Jehudah the high priest and the assembly of the Jews", and another seven with the same inscriptions. Each coin has a value of one prutah and bears the inscriptions in a wreath. On the opposite side, there is a cornucopia with pomegranates between them.Template:Sfn The inscriptions on his coins are almost identical to those on the coins of his father and his brother Alexander Jannaeus.Template:Sfn

Doubts concerning Josephus's assertion that Aristobulus was the first Hasmonean monarch are indicated by his coins, which do not contain the title of "king."Template:Sfn Josephus's statement also conflicts with Strabo, who states that Alexander Jannaeus was the first king rather than a high priest. However, no Hasmonean relinquished the high priesthood in favour of the kingship.Template:Sfn

According to Kenneth Atkinson, Alexander Jannaeus faced opposition for having the kingship title minted on his coins. Alexander had many of those coins overstruck to replace the kingship title with that of the high priesthood. Atkinson considers the overstruck coins as evidence that the title of "king" was still problematic during Alexander's reign. Atkinson concludes that "the absence of any royal designation on Aristobulus's coins does not indicate that he was never an actual monarch."Template:Sfn

Legacy and historical debates

The brief yet impactful reign of Aristobulus I left a lasting imprint on the Hasmonean dynasty, sparking historical debates about his true status as a monarch. While Josephus asserts that Aristobulus was the first Hasmonean king, numismatic evidence complicates this claim. The coins minted during Aristobulus's rule do not bear the title of "king," fueling doubts about his royal status. This discrepancy aligns with conflicting accounts from Strabo, who credits Alexander Jannaeus as the inaugural Hasmonean king. The enduring debate hinges on the intricacies of Hasmonean leadership, with scholars pondering whether Aristobulus held both the high priesthood and kingship simultaneously. The absence of the royal designation on his coins, reminiscent of the later hesitancy seen in Alexander Jannaeus's reign, adds a layer of complexity to understanding the political dynamics within Hasmonean rule.

Historical significance and religious tensions

The dual assertion of high priesthood and kingship by Aristobulus I not only fueled debates among historians but also heightened religious tensions during his reign. The Pharisees, staunch believers in the Davidic lineage as the rightful kings, vehemently opposed Aristobulus's claims to the throne. This ideological conflict resulted in a massive rebellion initiated by the Pharisees, seeking to depose Aristobulus. However, his untimely death pre-empted any resolution to this religious and political turmoil. The clash between traditionalist Pharisees and the Hasmonean monarch set the stage for subsequent power struggles within the Jewish community, contributing to the complex socio-political landscape of the time. Thus, the legacy of Aristobulus I extends beyond the numismatic uncertainties, encompassing the intricate interplay between religious convictions and political ambitions that characterised this pivotal period in Judean history.

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