Asafoetida

Unprocessed asafoetida in a jar and as a tincture

Asafoetida (Template:IPAc-en; also spelled asafetida)<ref> Template:Cite encyclopedia </ref> is the dried latex (gum oleoresin) exuded from the rhizome or tap root of several species of Ferula, perennial herbs of the carrot family. It is produced in Iran, Afghanistan, Central Asia, southern India and Northwest China (Xinjiang). Different regions have different botanical sources.

Asafoetida has a pungent smell, as reflected in its name, lending it the common name of "stinking gum". The odour dissipates upon cooking; in cooked dishes, it delivers a smooth flavour reminiscent of leeks or other onion relatives. Asafoetida is also known colloquially as "devil's dung" in English (and similar expressions in many other languages).

Etymology and other namesEdit

The English name is derived from asa, a Latinised form of Persian {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'mastic', and Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'stinky'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Other names include, with its pungent odour having resulted in many unpleasant names:

Names in different languages
Language	Name	Literal meaning/Notes
Afrikaans	lang}}	Devil's dirt
Arabic	lang}}<ref name=pharmacognosy>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Assamese	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})
Bengali	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})
Burmese	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})
Danish	lang}}	Devil's dung
Dutch	lang}}<ref name="Vegatopia">"Asafoetida: die geur is des duivels!" Vegatopia (in Dutch), retrieved 8 December 2011. This was used also as a source the book World Food Café: Global Vegetarian Cooking by Chris and Carolyn Caldicott, 1999, Template:ISBN.</ref>	Devil's dirt
English	Devil's dung
Finnish	lang}}	Devil's shit
Finnish	lang}}	Devil's resin
French	lang}}<ref name="Vegatopia" />	Devil shit
German	lang}}<ref>Thomas Carlyle's well-known 19th century novel Sartor Resartus concerns a German philosopher named Teufelsdröckh.</ref>	Devil's dirt
Gujarati	lang}} (હિંગ)
Hebrew	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})<ref name="ben Jehiel 1553">Template:Cite book</ref>
Hebrew	lang}}<ref name="ben Jehiel 1553"/>
Hindi	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})
Kannada	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})
Kashmiri	Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})
Kashubian	lang}}	chort dung
Malayalam	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})	lang}} in the 14th century
Marathi	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})
Meitei	{{#invoke:Lang\|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})
Nepali	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})
Norwegian	lang}}	Devil's dirt
Odia	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})
Pashto	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> \|\|
Persian	Anghoze (آنقوزه)
Polish	lang}}	chort dung
Spanish	lang}}	Devil's manure
Swedish	lang}}	Devil's dirt
Tamil	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})
Telugu	lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})
Thai	lang}} (Template:RTGS)	From Indic Template:IAST
Turkish	lang}}<ref name="Vegatopia" />	Satan's shit
	lang}}<ref name="Vegatopia" />	Satan's weed
	lang}}<ref name="Vegatopia" />
Urdu	Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang\|lang}})

CompositionEdit

Typical asafoetida contains about 40–64% resin, 25% endogeneous gum, 10–17% volatile oil, and 1.5–10% ash. The resin portion contains asaresinotannols A and B, ferulic acid, umbelliferone, and four unidentified compounds.<ref name="Singhal">Handbook of Indices of Food Quality and Authenticity. Rekha S. Singhal, Pushpa R. Kulkarni. 1997, Woodhead Publishing, Food industry and trade Template:ISBN. More information about the composition, p. 395.</ref> The volatile oil component is rich in various organosulfide compounds, such as 2-butyl-propenyl-disulfide, diallyl sulfide, diallyl disulfide (also present in garlic) <ref name=pharmacognosy /> and dimethyl trisulfide, which is also responsible for the odour of cooked onions. The organosulfides are primarily responsible for the odour and flavour of asafoetida.<ref name=Farhadi2020/>

Botanical sourcesEdit

Many Ferula species are utilised as the sources of asafoetida. Most of them are characterised by abundant sulphur-containing compounds in the essential oil.<ref name="Sahebkar">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Farhadi2020">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Ferula foetida is the source of asafoetida in Eastern Iran, western Afghanistan, western Pakistan and Central Asia (Karakum Desert, Kyzylkum Desert).<ref name="Chamberlain">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Farhadi2019">Template:Cite journal</ref> It is one of the most widely distributed asafoetida-producing species and often mistaken for F. assa-foetida.<ref name="Chamberlain" /> It has sulphur-containing compounds in the essential oil.<ref name="Farhadi2020" />
Ferula assa-foetida is endemic to Southern Iran and is the source of asafoetida there. It has sulphur-containing compounds in the essential oil.<ref name="Sahebkar" /><ref name="Farhadi2020" /> Although it is often considered the main source of asafoetida on the international market,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> this notion is attributable to the fact that several Ferula species acting as the major sources are often misidentified as F. assa-foetida.<ref name="Chamberlain" /><ref name="Panahi" /> In fact, the production of asafoetida from F. assa-foetida is confined to its native range, namely Southern Iran, outside which the sources of asafoetida are other species.<ref name="Farhadi2020" /><ref name="Farhadi2019" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Ferula pseudalliacea and Ferula rubricaulis are endemic to western and southwestern Iran. They are sometimes considered conspecific with F. assa-foetida.<ref name="Chamberlain" /><ref name="Panahi">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Ferula lutensis and Ferula alliacea are the sources of asafoetida in Eastern Iran. They have sulphur-containing compounds in the essential oil.<ref name="Farhadi2020" /><ref name="Farhadi2019" />
Ferula latisecta is the source of asafoetida in Eastern Iran and southern Turkmenistan.<ref name="Farhadi2019" /> It has sulphur-containing compounds in the essential oil.<ref name="Sahebkar" />
Ferula sinkiangensis and Ferula fukanensis are endemic to Xinjiang, China. They are the sources of asafoetida in China.<ref name="药典">Template:Cite book</ref> They have sulphur-containing compounds in the essential oil.<ref name="Sahebkar" />
Ferula narthex is native to Afghanistan, northern Pakistan and Kashmir.<ref name="Chamberlain" /> Although it is often listed as the source of asafoetida, one report states that it lacks sulphur-containing compounds in the essential oil.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

UsesEdit

CookingEdit

File:Asafoetida.jpg

Containers of commercial asafoetida

This spice is used as a digestive aid,Template:Citation needed in food as a condiment, and in pickling. It plays a critical flavouring role in Indian vegetarian cuisine by acting as a savory enhancer. Used along with turmeric, it is a standard component of lentil curries, such as dal, chickpea curries, and vegetable dishes, especially those based on potato and cauliflower. Asafoetida is quickly heated in hot oil before it is sprinkled on the food. It is sometimes used to harmonise sweet, sour, salty, and spicy components in food. The spice is added to the food as it's tempered.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In its pure form, it is sold in the form of chunks of resin, small quantities of which are scraped off for use. The odour of the pure resin is so strong that the pungent smell will contaminate other spices stored nearby if it is not stored in an airtight container.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

When adapting recipes for those with garlic allergy or intolerance, asafoetida can be used as a substitute.

Cultivation and manufactureEdit

The resin-like gum comes from the dried sap extracted from the stem and roots, and is used as a spice. The resin is greyish-white when fresh, but dries to a dark amber colour. The asafoetida resin is difficult to grate and is traditionally crushed between stones or with a hammer. Today, the most commonly available form is compounded asafoetida, a fine powder containing 30% asafoetida resin, along with rice flour or maida (white wheat flour) and gum arabic.Template:Citation needed

Ferula assa-foetida is a monoecious, herbaceous, perennial plant of the family Apiaceae. It grows to Template:Convert high, with a circular mass of Template:Convert leaves. Stem leaves have wide sheathing petioles. Flowering stems are Template:Convert high and Template:Convert thick and hollow, with a number of schizogenous ducts in the cortex containing the resinous gum. Flowers are pale greenish yellow produced in large compound umbels. Fruits are oval, flat, thin, reddish brown and have a milky juice. Roots are thick, massive, and pulpy. They yield a resin similar to that of the stems. All parts of the plant have the distinctive fetid smell.<ref name="Ross">Template:Cite book</ref>

HistoryEdit

Asafoetida was familiar in the early Mediterranean, having come by land across Iran. It was brought to Europe by an expedition of Alexander the Great, who, after returning from a trip to northeastern ancient Persia, thought that he had found a plant almost identical to the famed silphium of Cyrene in North Africa—though less tasty. Dioscorides, in the first century, wrote, "the Cyrenaic kind, even if one just tastes it, at once arouses a humour throughout the body and has a very healthy aroma, so that it is not noticed on the breath, or only a little; but the Median [Iranian] is weaker in power and has a nastier smell." Nevertheless, it could be substituted for silphium in cooking, which was fortunate, because a few decades after Dioscorides' time, the true silphium of Cyrene became extinct, and asafoetida became more popular amongst physicians, as well as cooks.<ref name="Dalby">Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices. Andrew Dalby. 2000. University of California Press. Spices/ History. 184 pages. Template:ISBN</ref>

Asafoetida is also mentioned numerous times in Jewish literature, such as the Mishnah.<ref>m. Avodah Zarah ch. 1; m. Shabbat ch. 20; et al.</ref> Maimonides also writes in the Mishneh Torah "In the rainy season, one should eat warm food with much spice, but a limited amount of mustard and asafoetida [{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}]."<ref>Mishneh Torah, Laws of Opinions (Hilchot Deot) 4:8.</ref>

While it is generally forgotten now in Europe, it is widely used in India. Asafoetida is mentioned in the Bhagavata Purana (7:5:23-24), which states that one must not have eaten hing before worshipping the deity. Asafoetida is eaten by Brahmins and Jains.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Devotees of the Hare Krishna movement also use hing in their food, as they are not allowed to consume onions or garlic. Their food has to be presented to Lord Krishna for sanctification (to become Prasadam) before consumption and onions and garlic cannot be offered to Krishna.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Asafoetida was described by a number of Arab and Islamic scientists and pharmacists. Avicenna discussed the effects of asafoetida on digestion. Ibn al-Baitar and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi described some positive medicinal effects on the respiratory system.<ref>Avicenna (1999). The Canon of Medicine (al-Qānūn fī'l-ṭibb), vol. 1. Laleh Bakhtiar (ed.), Oskar Cameron Gruner (trans.), Mazhar H. Shah (trans.). Great Books of the Islamic World. Template:ISBN</ref>

After the fall of Rome and until the 16th century, asafoetida was rare in Europe, and if ever encountered, it was viewed as a medicine. "If used in cookery, it would ruin every dish because of its dreadful smell", asserted Garcia de Orta's European guest. "Nonsense", Garcia replied, "nothing is more widely used in every part of India, both in medicine and in cookery." Template:Citation needed

During the Italian Renaissance, asafoetida was used as part of the exorcism ritual.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>