Ash'arism

Ash'arism (Template:IPAc-en;<ref>"al-Ashʿari". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.</ref> Template:Langx) is a school of theology in Sunni Islam named after Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari, a Shāfiʿī jurist, reformer (mujaddid), and scholastic theologian,<ref name="Nasr 2006">Template:Cite book</ref> in the 9th–10th century.Template:Refn It established an orthodox guideline,Template:Refn based on scriptural authority,Template:Refn rationality,Template:Refn and theological rationalism.Template:Refn It is one of the three main schools alongside Maturidism and Atharism.

Al-Ash'aris Knowledge was based both on reliance on the sacred scriptures of Islam and theological rationalism concerning the agency and attributes of God.<ref name="Nasr 2006" /><ref name="Thiele 2016" /><ref name="Frank 2020" /> Ashʿarism eventually became the predominant school of theological thought within Sunnī Islam,<ref name="Islamica 2015">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref name="Thiele 2016" /><ref name="Henderson 1998">Template:Cite book</ref> and is regarded as the single most important school of Islamic theology in the history of Islam.<ref name="Islamica 2015" />

The disciples of the Ash'ari school are known as Ashʿarites,Template:Refn and the school is also referred to as the Ashʿarite school,Template:Refn which became one of the dominant theological schools within Sunnī Islam.Template:Refn Ash'ari theology is considered one of the orthodox creeds of Sunnī Islam,Template:Refn alongside the AtharīTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and Māturīdī.<ref name="Thiele 2016" /><ref name="Henderson 1998" />

Amongst the most famous Ashʿarite theologians are al-Nawawi, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Ibn al-Jawzi, al-Ghazali, al-Suyuti, Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Ibn 'Asakir, al-Subki, al-Taftazani, al-Baqillani, and al-Bayhaqi.<ref>Hamad al-Sanan, Fawziy al-'Anjariy, Ahl al-Sunnah al-Asha'irah, pp.248-258. Dar al-Diya'.</ref> Scholars and scientists who were affiliated with the Ash'ari school included al-Biruni, Ibn al-Haytham, Ibn al-Nafis, Ibn Battuta, and Ibn Khaldun.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Sardar, Ziauddin (1998), "Science in Islamic philosophy", Islamic Philosophy, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 2008-02-03</ref> An Islamic philosopher who was particularly attacked by the Ashʿari school is Avicenna, on various accounts, notably his philosophical theology, his logic and his physics.<ref>Peter Adamson and Andreas Lammer (2020). "Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī’s Platonist Account of the Essence of Time" In: Ayman Shihadeh and Jan Thiele (eds.) Philosophical Theology in Islam. Later Ashʿarism East and West. Leiden - Boston: Brill, p. 95</ref>

History

File:Tunis mosque 1899.jpg

Al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis, one of the most important centers of Islamic learning that contributed to the dissemination of Ashʿarī thought in the Maghreb<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

Founder

Template:Ash'arism Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī was born in Basra,<ref name="John L. Esposito p 54">John L. Esposito, The Islamic World: Abbasid-Historian, p 54. Template:ISBN</ref> Iraq, and was a descendant of Abū Mūsa al-Ashʿarī, which belonged to the first generation of Muhammad's closest companions (ṣaḥāba).<ref name="I.M.N. Al-Jubouri p 182">I.M.N. Al-Jubouri, History of Islamic Philosophy: With View of Greek Philosophy and Early History of Islam, p 182. Template:ISBN</ref> As a young man he studied under al-Jubba'i, a renowned teacher of Muʿtazilite theology and philosophy.<ref>Marshall Cavendish Reference, Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World, p 87. Template:ISBN</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> He was noted for his teachings on atomism,<ref name=Hye>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> among the earliest Islamic philosophies, and for al-Ashʿarī this was the basis for propagating the view that God created every moment in time and every particle of matter. He nonetheless believed in free will and predestination, elaborating the thoughts of Dirar ibn 'Amr and Abu Hanifa into a "dual agent" or "acquisition" (iktisab) account of free will.<ref>Watt, Montgomery. Free-Will and Predestination in Early Islam. Luzac & Co.: London 1948.</ref>Template:Page needed

While Al-Ashʿarī opposed the views of the rival Muʿtazilite school, he was also opposed to the view which rejected all debate, held by certain schools such as the Zahiri ("literalist"), Mujassimite (anthropotheist), schools for their over-emphasis on taqlid (imitation) in his Istihsan al‑Khaud:<ref name=Hye/> But instead, Imam Al-Ash'ari affirmed the ambiguous verses in the Qur'an (such as those about the hand and eyes) without a "how" (modality) and without a meaning (meaning, he consigned the meaning to God), a practice known as tafwid. He also allowed another orthodox way of dealing with the ambiguous verses in the Qur'an called ta'wil (interpretation based on the Arabic language and revelation).

A section of the people (i.e., the Zahirites and others) made capital out of their own ignorance; discussions and rational thinking about matters of faith became a heavy burden for them, and, therefore, they became inclined to blind faith and blind following (taqlid). They condemned those who tried to rationalize the principles of religion as 'innovators'. They considered discussion about motion, rest, body, accident, colour, space, atom, the leaping of atoms, and Attributes of God, to be an innovation and a sin. They said that had such discussions been the right thing, the Prophet and his Companions would have definitely done so; they further pointed out that the Prophet, before his death, discussed and fully explained all those matters which were necessary from the religious point of view, leaving none of them to be discussed by his followers; and since he did not discuss the problems mentioned above, it was evident that to discuss them must be regarded as an innovation.{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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Development

Ashʿarism became the main school of early Islamic philosophy whereby it was initially based on the foundations laid down by al-Ashʿarī, who founded the Ashʿarite school in the 10th century based on the methodology taught to him by the Kullabi movement that used rational argumentation to defend Sunni creed. However, the Ashʿarite school underwent many developments throughout history, resulting in the term Ashʿarī being extremely broad in its modern usage (e.g., differences between Ibn Furak (d. AH 406) and al-Bayhaqi (d. AH 384)).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

For example, the Ashʿarite view was that comprehension of the unique nature and characteristics of God were beyond human capability. The solution proposed by al-Ashʿarī to solve the problems of tashbih and ta'til concedes that the Supreme Being possesses in a real sense the divine attributes and names mentioned in the Quran. In so far as these names and attributes have a positive reality, they are distinct from the essence, but nevertheless they don't have either existence or reality apart from it.

The inspiration of al-Ashʿarī in this matter was on the one hand to distinguish essence and attribute as concepts, and on the other hand to see that the duality between essence and attribute should be situated not on the quantitative but on the qualitative level—something which Muʿtazilite thinking had failed to grasp.Template:Sfn Ashʿarite theologians were referred to as the muthbita ("those who make firm") by the Muʿtazilites.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Beliefs

Template:Confusing section Two popular sources for Ash'ari creeds are Maqalat al-Islamiyyin and Ibana'an Usul al-Diyana.<ref>Richard McCarthy The theology of al-ash'ari 1953 Appendix IV</ref>

God and God's attributes

Ashʿarites also hold beliefs about God's attributes that are unique to them, such as:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

• Existence;
• Permanence without beginning;
• Endurance without end;
• Absoluteness and independence;
• Dissimilarity to created things;
• Oneness;
• God is all-powerful, willful, knowing, living, seeing, hearing, and speaking (signifying attributes).

God and relationship with humans

The Ashʿarī school of Islamic theology holds that:

• God is all-powerful (omnipotent).
• Good is what God commands—as revealed in the Quran and the ḥadīth—and is by definition just; evil is what God forbids and is likewise unjust.<ref name="ReferenceA">John L. Esposito The Oxford History of Islam Oxford University Press 2000 Template:ISBN p. 281</ref> Right and wrong are in no way determined intuitively or naturally, they are not objective realities.<ref name=brown-2014-53>Template:Cite book</ref> (Divine command theory)
• Because of Divine omnipotence, there are no "natural laws" (of things like thermodynamics or gravity), because such laws would put limitations on His actions. There are, however, Divine "customs", whereby "certain so-called 'effectsTemplate:'" usually follow certain "causes" in the natural world.<ref name="Gibb-Mohammedanism-117">Template:Cite book</ref>
• Also because of Divine power, all human acts—even the decision to raise a finger—are created by God. This had caused controversy earlier in Islamic history because human acts are what humans are judged for when being sent to heaven (jannah) or hell (jahannam). Ashʿaris reconciled the doctrines of free will, justice, and divine omnipotence, with their own doctrine of kasb ("acquisition"), by which human beings "acquire" responsibility for their actions,<ref name=glasse-62-3 /> although these "actions are willed and created by God".<ref name="Gibb-Mohammedanism-117" /> Humans still possess free will (or, more accurately, freedom of intention) under this doctrine, although their freedom is limited to the power to decide between the given possibilities God has created.Template:Sfn (This doctrine is now known in Western philosophy as occasionalism.)
• God has created time as a framework for the creation of other things, but He is not limited by it. Duration is dependent on God, yet it is independent and subsists by itself. God is exalted above space and time, and both space and time originate from God.<ref>Peter Adamson and Andreas Lammer (2020). "Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī’s Platonist Account of the Essence of Time" In: Ayman Shihadeh and Jan Thiele (eds.) Philosophical Theology in Islam. Later Ashʿarism East and West. Leiden - Boston: Brill, p. 118-119</ref>
• The Quran is the uncreated word of God, that is, it was not created by God, but like God has always been. It can also be said to be created when it takes on a form in letters or sound.<ref name=glasse-62-3>Cyril Glassé, Huston Smith The New Encyclopedia of Islam Rowman Altamira 2003 Template:ISBN page 62-3</ref>
• The unique nature and attributes of God cannot be understood fully by human reason and the physical senses.<ref name="ReferenceA" />
• Reason is God-given and must be employed over the source of knowledge.Template:SfnTemplate:Clarify
• Intellectual inquiry is decreed by the Quran and the Islamic prophet Muhammad, therefore the interpretation (tafsīr) of the Quran and the ḥadīth should keep developing with the aid of older interpretations.<ref>Alexander Knysh Islam in Historical Perspective Taylor & Francis 2016 Template:ISBN page 163</ref>
• Only God knows the heart, who belongs to the faithful and who does not.<ref>Ron Geaves Islam Today: An Introduction A&C Black 2010 Template:ISBN page 21</ref>
• God has "absolute freedom" to "punish or reward as He wills",<ref name="Gibb-Mohammedanism-117" /> and so may forgive the sins of those in Hell.<ref>Ian Richard Netton Encyclopaedia of Islam Routledge 2013 Template:ISBN page 183</ref>
• Support of kalām (rationalistic Islamic theology).

Prophets and the unseen

Ashʿarites further affirm that Muslims beliefs include:

• In all the prophets and messengers of Islam, from Adam to Muhammad.<ref name=Saeed-chap-5 />
• Jesus will return to earth and defeat the Dajjal.<ref name=":0">Richard McCarthy The theology of al-ash'ari 1953 p. 250</ref>
• Belief in the angels.<ref name=Saeed-chap-5 />
• Including the angels of the grave (Munkar and Nakir).<ref name=":0" />
• That Satan tempts man, contrarily to the Mu'tazila and Jahmiyya (the mention of the latter two branches only appears in Ibana).<ref>Richard McCarthy The theology of al-ash'ari 1953 p. 252</ref>
• The reality of Paradise and Hell.
• That prayers for dead Muslims and almsgiving reach them.<ref name=":1">Richard McCarthy The theology of al-ash'ari 1953 p. 251</ref>
• During sleep, visions can be seen and they have an interpretation ("interpretation" only found in Ibana).<ref name=":1" />
• The existence of sorcerers and that magic is a reality in the world.<ref name=":1" />
• That jinn are real and able to physically possess people, although not mentioned in the works above, many Ash'arites consider this as part of the aqida.<ref name="Böttcher–2021">Islam, Migration and Jinn: Spiritual Medicine in Muslim Health Management. (2021). Deutschland: Springer International Publishing.</ref>

Ashʿarism and reason

It is said that in the early period, Ash'arites followed a method that combined reason and revelation.<ref>YAVUZ, Yusuf Şevki. Eş'ariyye. TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi, İstanbul 1995. c.XI p. 449</ref> This is in contrast to the assertion by some Ash'arites that those who believe without thinking (muqallidoon) cannot be true believers.<ref>BAĞDÂDÎ, Abdulkâhir. Kitabu Usuli'd-Dîn. Çvr. Ömer AYDIN. İşaret Yayınları, İstanbul 2016. p. 291</ref> This view indicates that believing in religion without using reason and thought is considered invalid according to them.

Contrary to this, some within the school, such as al-Taftazani, have sometimes stated that revelation also represents knowledge, while Ibn al-Tilimsanī criticized al-Razī, asking what grounds legal rulings if all revelation were mere conjecture, stating that revelation cannot entirely be based on conjecture.<ref>İBNÜ't-TİLİMSÂNÎ, Abdullah: Nşr. Mahmud Avvad SALİM: Şerhu Me'âlimi Usûli'd-Dîn, Daru'l-Kütübi'l-Mısriyye, Kahire, 2011. p. 125-26.</ref>

Later Ashʿarism

File:Sheikh Said Foudah.png

Sa'id Foudah, a leading contemporary Ashʿarī scholar of kalām (Islamic systematic theology)

Nicholas Heer writes that later Ashʿarite theologians "increasingly attempted to rationalize Islamic doctrine" from about the 12th century onwards. Theologians such as al-Taftāzānī<ref>See the article “al-Taftāzānī” by W. Madelung in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. X, pp. 88-89</ref> and al-Jurjānī <ref>See the article “al-Djurdjānī” by A.S. Tritton in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. II, pp. 602-603</ref> argued that the Islamic sacred scriptures (the Quran and the ḥadīth) "must be proven to be true by rational arguments" before being "accepted as the basis of the religion". Educated Muslims "must be convinced on the basis of rational arguments".<ref name=heer-lecture-10-11>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A series of rational proofs were developed by these Ashʿarite theologians, including proofs for "the following doctrines or propositions":

1. The universe is originated;
2. The universe has an originator or creator;
3. The creator of the universe is knowing, powerful and willing;
4. Prophecy is possible;
5. Miracles are possible;
6. Miracles indicate the truthfulness of one who claims to be a prophet;
7. Muhammad claimed to be a prophet and performed miracles.<ref name=heer-lecture-10-11 />

Criticism

Template:Criticism section The medieval Muslim scholar Ibn Taymiyyah criticised the Ashʿarī theology as (in the words of one historian, Jonathan A. C. Brown) "a Greek solution to Greek problems" that should "never" have concerned Muslims.<ref name=brown-62>Template:Cite book</ref> Both Ibn Taymiyyah and Shah Waliullah Dehlawi rejected the lack of literalism in Ashʿarī "speculative theology" and advocated "literal acceptance of God's description of Himself".<ref name=brown-65>Template:Cite book</ref>

In contrast, German orientalist scholar Eduard Sachau says that the Ashʿarī theology and its biggest defender, al-Ghazali, was too literal and responsible for the decline of Islamic science starting in the 10th century. Sachau stated that the two clerics were the only obstacle to the Muslim world becoming a nation of "Galileos, Keplers, and Newtons".<ref>Muzaffar Iqbal, Science and Islam, p. 120. From the Greenwood Guides to Science and Religion Series. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. Template:ISBN</ref>

Ziauddin Sardar states that some of the greatest Muslim scientists of the Islamic Golden Age, such as Ibn al-Haytham and Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, who were pioneers of the scientific method, were themselves followers of the Ashʿarī school of Islamic theology.<ref name=Sardar>Template:Citation</ref> Like other Ashʿarites who believed that faith or taqlid should be applied only to Islam and not to any ancient Hellenistic authorities,<ref name=Anwar>Template:Citation</ref> Ibn al-Haytham's view that taqlid should be applied only to the prophets and messengers of Islam and not to any other authorities formed the basis for much of his scientific skepticism and criticism against Ptolemy and other ancient authorities in his Doubts Concerning Ptolemy and Book of Optics.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

See also

• 2016 international conference on Sunni Islam in Grozny
• 2020 International Maturidi Conference
• Islamic schools and branches
• List of prominent Ash'aris

Bibliography

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book

External links

• Who are the Ash'arites? Template:Webarchive Dar al-Iftaa Al-Missriyyah
• The Ash'ari's School of Theology Template:Webarchive Dar al-Iftaa Al-Missriyyah
• Ashariyys – The Knights of Knowledge and the Pioneers of Success – sunna.info