Template:Short description Template:Redirect Atmospheric pressure, also known as air pressure or barometric pressure (after the barometer), is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth. The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as Template:Cvt, which is equivalent to 1,013.25 millibars,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> 760Template:Nbspmm Hg, 29.9212Template:Nbsp[[inch of mercury|inchesTemplate:NbspHg]], or 14.696Template:Nbsppsi.<ref name="ICAO">International Civil Aviation Organization. Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere, Doc 7488-CD, Third Edition, 1993. Template:ISBN.</ref> The atm unit is roughly equivalent to the mean sea-level atmospheric pressure on Earth; that is, the Earth's atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately 1 atm.
In most circumstances, atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. Because the atmosphere is thin relative to the Earth's radius—especially the dense atmospheric layer at low altitudes—the Earth's gravitational acceleration as a function of altitude can be approximated as constant and contributes little to this fall-off. Pressure measures force per unit area, with SI units of pascals (1 pascal = 1 newton per square metre, 1Template:NbspN/m2). On average, a column of air with a cross-sectional area of 1 square centimetre (cm2), measured from the mean (average) sea level to the top of Earth's atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kilogram and exerts a force or "weight" of about 10.1 newtons, resulting in a pressure of 10.1 N/cm2 or 101Template:NbspkN/m2 (101 kilopascals, kPa). A column of air with a cross-sectional area of 1Template:Nbspin2 would have a weight of about 14.7Template:Nbsplbf, resulting in a pressure of 14.7Template:Nbsplbf/in2.
MechanismEdit
Atmospheric pressure is caused by the gravitational attraction of the planet on the atmospheric gases above the surface and is a function of the mass of the planet, the radius of the surface, and the amount and composition of the gases and their vertical distribution in the atmosphere.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature and variations in composition.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Mean sea-level pressureEdit
The mean sea-level pressure (MSLP) is the atmospheric pressure at mean sea level. This is the atmospheric pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television, and newspapers or on the Internet.Template:Citation needed
The altimeter setting in aviation is an atmospheric pressure adjustment.
Average sea-level pressure is Template:Cvt. In aviation weather reports (METAR), QNH is transmitted around the world in hectopascals or millibars (1 hectopascal = 1 millibar). In the United States, Canada, and Japan altimeter setting is reported in inches of mercury (to two decimal places). The United States and Canada also report sea-level pressure SLP, which is adjusted to sea level by a different method, in the remarks section, not in the internationally transmitted part of the code, in hectopascals or millibars.<ref>Sample METAR of CYVR Template:Webarchive Nav Canada</ref> However, in Canada's public weather reports, sea level pressure is instead reported in kilopascals.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>
In the US weather code remarks, three digits are all that are transmitted; decimal points and the one or two most significant digits are omitted: Template:Cvt is transmitted as 132; Template:Cvt is transmitted as 000; 998.7Template:NbsphPa is transmitted as 987; etc. The highest sea-level pressure on Earth occurs in Siberia, where the Siberian High often attains a sea-level pressure above Template:Cvt, with record highs close to Template:Cvt. The lowest measurable sea-level pressure is found at the centres of tropical cyclones and tornadoes, with a record low of Template:Cvt. A system transmitting the last three digits transmits the same code (800) for 1080.0 hPa as for 980.0 hPa.
Surface pressure Template:AnchorEdit
Surface pressure is the atmospheric pressure at a location on Earth's surface (terrain and oceans). It is directly proportional to the mass of air over that location.
For numerical reasons, atmospheric models such as general circulation models (GCMs) usually predict the nondimensional logarithm of surface pressure.
The average value of surface pressure on Earth is 985 hPa.<ref name="jacobs">Jacob, Daniel J. Introduction to Atmospheric Chemistry Template:Webarchive. Princeton University Press, 1999.</ref> This is in contrast to mean sea-level pressure, which involves the extrapolation of pressure to sea level for locations above or below sea level. The average pressure at mean sea level (MSL) in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is 1,013.25 hPa, or 1 atmosphere (atm), or 29.92 inches of mercury.
Pressure (P), mass (m), and acceleration due to gravity (g) are related by P = F/A = (m*g)/A, where A is the surface area. Atmospheric pressure is thus proportional to the weight per unit area of the atmospheric mass above that location.
Altitude variationEdit
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Pressure on Earth varies with the altitude of the surface, so air pressure on mountains is usually lower than air pressure at sea level. Pressure varies smoothly from the Earth's surface to the top of the mesosphere. Although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. One can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude.<ref>A quick derivation relating altitude to air pressure Template:Webarchive by Portland State Aerospace Society, 2004, accessed 05032011</ref> Temperature and humidity also affect the atmospheric pressure. Pressure is proportional to temperature and inversely related to humidity, and both of these are necessary to compute an accurate figure. The graph Template:If mobile was developed for a temperature of 15 °C and a relative humidity of 0%.
At low altitudes above sea level, the pressure decreases by about Template:Convert for every 100 metres. For higher altitudes within the troposphere, the following equation (the barometric formula) relates atmospheric pressure p to altitude h:
<math>\begin{align}
p &= p_0 \cdot \left(1 - \frac{L \cdot h}{T_0} \right)^\frac{g \cdot M}{R_0 \cdot L} \\
&= p_0 \cdot \left(1 - \frac{g \cdot h}{c_\text{p} \cdot T_0} \right)^{\frac{c_\text{p} \cdot M}{R_0}}
\approx p_0 \cdot \exp \left(-\frac{g \cdot h \cdot M}{T_0 \cdot R_0} \right)
\end{align}</math>
The values in these equations are:
| Parameter | Description | Value |
|---|---|---|
| h | Height above mean sea level | Template:Nbspm |
| p0 | Sea level standard atmospheric pressure | 101,325Template:NbspPa |
| L | Temperature lapse rate, = g/cp for dry air | ~ 0.00976Template:NbspK/m |
| cp | Constant-pressure specific heat | 1,004.68506Template:NbspJ/(kg·K) |
| T0 | Sea level standard temperature | 288.15Template:NbspK |
| g | Earth-surface gravitational acceleration | 9.80665Template:Nbspm/s2 |
| M | Molar mass of dry air | 0.02896968Template:Nbspkg/mol |
| R0 | Universal gas constant | 8.314462618Template:NbspJ/(mol·K) |
Local variationEdit
Atmospheric pressure varies widely on Earth, and these changes are important in studying weather and climate. Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal (twice-daily) cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a few hectopascals, and almost zero in polar areas. These variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian (24 h) cycle, and a semi-circadian (12 h) cycle.
RecordsEdit
The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth (above 750 meters) was Template:Convert measured in Tosontsengel, Mongolia on 19 December 2001.<ref name="wmo.ASU.edu">Template:Citation</ref> The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure ever recorded (below 750 meters) was at Agata in Evenk Autonomous Okrug, Russia (66°53'Template:NbspN, 93°28'Template:NbspE, elevation: Template:Convert) on 31 December 1968 of Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> The discrimination is due to the problematic assumptions (assuming a standard lapse rate) associated with reduction of sea level from high elevations.<ref name="wmo.ASU.edu" />
The Dead Sea, the lowest place on Earth at Template:Convert below sea level, has a correspondingly high typical atmospheric pressure of 1,065Template:NbsphPa.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A below-sea-level surface pressure record of Template:Convert was set on 21 February 1961.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The lowest non-tornadic atmospheric pressure ever measured was 870 hPa (0.858 atm; 25.69 inHg), set on 12 October 1979, during Typhoon Tip in the western Pacific Ocean. The measurement was based on an instrumental observation made from a reconnaissance aircraft.<ref name=FAQ1>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Measurement based on the depth of waterEdit
One atmosphere (Template:Cvt) is also the pressure caused by the weight of a column of freshwater of approximately Template:Cvt. Thus, a diver 10.3 m under water experiences a pressure of about 2 atmospheres (1 atm of air plus 1 atm of water). Conversely, 10.3 m is the maximum height to which water can be raised using suction under standard atmospheric conditions.
Low pressures, such as natural gas lines, are sometimes specified in inches of water, typically written as w.c. (water column) gauge or w.g. (inches water) gauge. A typical gas-using residential appliance in the US is rated for a maximum of Template:Cvt, which is approximately 14 w.g. Similar metric units with a wide variety of names and notation based on millimetres, centimetres or metres are now less commonly used.
Boiling point of liquidsEdit
Pure water boils at Template:Convert at earth's standard atmospheric pressure. The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure around the liquid.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Because of this, the boiling point of liquids is lower at lower pressure and higher at higher pressure. Cooking at high elevations, therefore, requires adjustments to recipes<ref>Template:Citation</ref> or pressure cooking. A rough approximation of elevation can be obtained by measuring the temperature at which water boils; in the mid-19th century, this method was used by explorers.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Conversely, if one wishes to evaporate a liquid at a lower temperature, for example in distillation, the atmospheric pressure may be lowered by using a vacuum pump, as in a rotary evaporator.
Measurement and mapsEdit
An important application of the knowledge that atmospheric pressure varies directly with altitude was in determining the height of hills and mountains, thanks to reliable pressure measurement devices. In 1774, Nevil Maskelyne was confirming Newton's theory of gravitation at and on Schiehallion mountain in Scotland, and he needed to measure elevations on the mountain's sides accurately. This event is known as the Schiehallion experiment. William Roy, using barometric pressure, was able to confirm Maskelyne's height determinations; the agreement was within one meter (3.28 feet). This method became and continues to be useful for survey work and map making.<ref>Hewitt, Rachel, Map of a Nation – a Biography of the Ordnance Survey Template:ISBN</ref>
See alsoEdit
- Template:Annotated link
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- Template:Annotated link – physical damage to body tissues caused by a difference in pressure between an air space inside or beside the body and the surrounding gas or liquid.
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- Collapsing can – an aluminium can is crushed by the atmospheric pressure surrounding it
- Template:Annotated link
- Template:Annotated link
- Template:Annotated link, a tabulation of typical variations of principal thermodynamic variables of the atmosphere (pressure, density, temperature, etc.) with altitude, at middle latitudes.
- Template:Annotated link
- Template:Annotated link
- Template:Annotated link, an empirical, global reference atmospheric model of the Earth from ground to space
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ReferencesEdit
External linksEdit
- Current map of global mean sea-level pressure
- 1976 Standard Atmosphere from NASA
- Source code and equations for the 1976 Standard Atmosphere
- A mathematical model of the 1976 U.S. Standard Atmosphere
- Calculator using multiple units and properties for the 1976 Standard Atmosphere
- Calculator giving standard air pressure at a specified altitude, or altitude at which a pressure would be standard
- Calculate pressure from altitude and vice versa
ExperimentsEdit
- Movies on atmospheric pressure experiments from Georgia State University's HyperPhysics website – requires QuickTime
- Test showing a can being crushed after boiling water inside it, then moving it into a tub of ice-cold water.
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