Bean

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File:French beans J1.JPG

French bean pods on a plant

A bean is the seed of some plants in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The seeds are often preserved through drying (a pulse), but fresh beans are also sold. Dried beans are traditionally soaked and boiled, and used in many traditional dishes throughout the world. They can be cooked in many different ways,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> however, including frying and baking. The unripe seedpods of some varieties are also eaten whole as green beans or edamame (immature soybean), but many fully ripened beans contain toxins like phytohemagglutinin and require cooking.

Terminology

The word "bean" and its Germanic cognates (e.g. German Bohne) have existed in common use in West Germanic languages since before the 12th century,<ref name="MW_Collegiate">Template:CitationTemplate:Page needed</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> referring to broad beans, chickpeas, and other pod-borne seeds. This was long before the New World genus Phaseolus was known in Europe. With the Columbian exchange of domestic plants between Europe and the Americas, use of the word was extended to pod-borne seeds of Phaseolus, such as the common bean and the runner bean, and the related genus Vigna. The term has long been applied generally to seeds of similar form,<ref name="AHD">Template:Cite dictionary</ref> such as Old World soybeans and lupins, and to the fruits or seeds of unrelated plants such as coffee beans, vanilla beans, castor beans, and cocoa beans.<ref name=FAOdef>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

History

Beans in an early cultivated form were grown in Thailand from the early seventh millennium BCE, predating ceramics.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Beans were deposited with the dead in ancient Egypt. Not until the second millennium BCE did cultivated, large-seeded broad beans appear in the Aegean region, Iberia, and transalpine Europe.<ref>Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf Domestication of Plants in the Old World Oxford University Press, 2012, Template:ISBN, p. 114.</ref> In the Iliad (8th century BCE), there is a passing mention of beans and chickpeas cast on the threshing floor.<ref>"And as in some great threshing-floor go leaping From a broad pan the black-skinned beans or peas." (Iliad xiii, 589).</ref>

The oldest-known domesticated beans in the Americas were found in Guitarrero Cave, Peru, dated to around the second millennium BCE.<ref name=Chazan/> Genetic analyses of the common bean Phaseolus show that it originated in Mesoamerica, and subsequently spread southward, along with maize and squash, traditional companion crops.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Most of the kinds of beans commonly eaten today are part of the genus Phaseolus, which originated in the Americas. The first European to encounter them was Christopher Columbus, while exploring what may have been the Bahamas, and saw them growing in fields. Five kinds of Phaseolus beans were domesticated by pre-Columbian peoples, selecting pods that did not open and scatter their seeds when ripe: common beans (P. vulgaris) grown from Chile to the northern part of the United States; lima and sieva beans (P. lunatus); and the less widely distributed teparies (P. acutifolius), scarlet runner beans (P. coccineus), and polyanthus beans.Template:Sfn

Pre-Columbian peoples as far north as the Atlantic seaboard grew beans in the "Three Sisters" method of companion planting. The beans were interplanted with maize and squash.<ref name="Mt. Pleasant 2006">Template:Cite book</ref> Beans were cultivated across Chile in Pre-Hispanic times, likely as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago.<ref name=Alimentarias>Template:Cite book</ref>

Diversity

Taxonomic range

Beans are legumes, but from many different genera, native to different regions.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Genus	Species and common varieties	Probable home region	Distribution, climate	Notes
Phaseolus	P. vulgaris: kidney, pinto, navy (cannellini, haricot/French/pole/bush), black, Borlotti beans P. lunatus: Lima beans P. coccineus: runner, flat beans P. acutifolius: tepary bean	The Americas	Tropical, subtropical, Warm temperate	Some contain high levels of toxic phytohemagglutinin.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Pisum	P. sativum: Green/garden, white, yellow, field, snow, and snap peas	Mediterranean	Subtropical, temperate, occasionally cool tropical
Vigna	V. radiata: mung bean V. mungo: urad bean V. unguiculata (Cowpeas): yardlong bean, black-eyed peas V. aconitifolia: moth bean V. angularis: adzuki beans	Mostly South Asia	Equatorial, pantropical, warm subtropical, hot temperate
Cajanus	C. cajan: pigeon pea	Indian Subcontinent	Pantropical, equatorial
Lens	L. culinaris: red, green, and Puy lentils	Near East/Levant	Temperate, subtropical, cool tropical
Cicer	C. arietinum: chickpeas	Turkey/Levant/Near East	Temperate, subtropical, cool tropical
Vicia	V. faba: broad beans V. ervilia: bitter vetch V. sativa: common vetch	Near East	Subtropical, temperate	Causes Favism in susceptible people.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Arachis	A. hypogaea: peanut	South America	Warm Subtropical, cool tropical
Glycine	G. max: soybean	East Asia	Hot temperate, Subtropical, cool tropical
Macrotyloma	M. uniflorum: horsegram	South Asia	Tropical, subtropical
Mucuna	M. pruriens: velvet bean	Tropical Asia and Africa	Tropical, Warm Subtropical	Contains L-DOPA,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and smaller amounts of other psychoactive compounds. Can cause itching and rashes on contact.
Lupinus	L. albus: white lupin L. mutabilis: tarwi/Andean lupin	The Mediterranean, Balkans, Levant (albinus), The Andes (mutabilis)	Subtropical, temperate	Requires soaking to remove toxins.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Ceratonia	C. siliqua: carob bean	Mediterranean, Middle East	Subtropical, arid subtropical, hot temperate
Canavalia	C. gladiata: sword bean C. ensiformis: Jack beans	South Asia or Africa (C. gladiata), Brazil and South America (C. Ensiformis)	Tropical
Cyamopsis	C. tetragonoloba: guar bean	Africa or South Asia	Tropical, semi-arid	Source of Guar gum
Lablab	L. purpureus: hyacinth/lablab bean	South Asia, Indian Subcontinent or Africa	Tropical
Psophocarpus	P. tetranoglobulus: winged bean	New Guinea	Tropical, equatorial
Clitoria	C. ternatea: butterfly pea	Equatorial and Tropical Asia	Tropical, subtropical	Flowers used as a natural food colouring
Lathyrus	L. sativus: grass pea L. tuberosus: tuberous pea	Balkans, India or Asia	Subtropical	Can cause Lathyrism if used as staple.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Conservation of cultivars

The biodiversity of bean cultivars is threatened by modern plant breeding, which selects a small number of the most productive varieties. Efforts are being made to conserve the germplasm of older varieties in different countries.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> As of 2023, the Norwegian Svalbard Global Seed Vault holds more than 40,000 accessions of Phaseolus bean species.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Cultivation

Agronomy

Many beans are summer crops that needs warm temperatures to grow; peas are an exception. Legumes are capable of nitrogen fixation and hence need less fertiliser than most plants. Maturity is typically 55–60 days from planting to harvest.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> As the pods mature, they turn yellow and dry up, and the beans inside change from green to their mature colour. Many beans are vines needing external support, such as "bean cages" or poles. Native Americans customarily grew them along with corn and squash, the tall stalks acting as support for the beans.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

More recently, the commercial "bush bean" which does not require support and produces all its pods simultaneously has been developed.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

• Bean Flower in Bangladesh.jpg

  Flower with pollinator

• Lablab bean and bean flowers.JPG

  Lablab flowers and fruits

• Field beans near Pendomer - geograph.org.uk - 1463701.jpg

  Broad beans ready for harvest

Production

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File:Beans in a supermarket.jpg

Beans in a market

The production data for legumes are published by FAO in three categories:

1. Pulses dry: all mature and dry seeds of leguminous plants except soybeans and groundnuts.
2. Oil crops: soybeans and groundnuts.
3. Fresh vegetable: immature green fresh fruits of leguminous plants.

The following is a summary of FAO data.<ref>FAO STAT Production/Crops.</ref>

Production of legumes (million metric tons)

Crops [FAO code]<ref>See Template:Slink.</ref>	1961	1981	2001	2015	2016	Ratio 2016 /1961	Remarks
Total pulses (dry) [1726]	40.78	41.63	56.23	77.57	81.80	2.01	Template:Left Per capita production decreased. (Population grew 2.4×)
Oil crops (dry)
Soybeans [236]	26.88	88.53	177.02	323.20	334.89	12.46	Template:Left Increase driven by animal feeds and oil.
Groundnuts, with shell [242]	14.13	20.58	35.82	45.08	43.98	3.11
Fresh vegetables (80–90% water)
Beans, green [414]	2.63	4.09	10.92	23.12	23.60	8.96
Peas, green [417]	3.79	5.66	12.41	19.44	19.88	5.25

Top producers, pulses [1726]<ref>All legumes dry.</ref>
(million metric tons)

	Country	2016	Share
Total		81.80	100%
1	India	17.56	21.47%
2	Canada	8.20	10.03%
3	Myanmar	6.57	8.03%
4	China	4.23	5.17%
5	Nigeria	3.09	3.78%
6	Russia	2.94	3.60%
7	Ethiopia	2.73	3.34%
8	Brazil	2.62	3.21%
9	Australia	2.52	3.09%
10	USA	2.44	2.98%
11	Niger	2.06	2.51%
12	Tanzania	2.00	2.45%
	Others	24.82	30.34%

The world leader in production of dry beans (Phaseolus spp),<ref>Dry beans does not include broad beans, dry peas, chickpea, lentil.</ref> is India, followed by Myanmar (Burma) and Brazil. In Africa, the most important producer is Tanzania.<ref name=FAODEF>FAO Pulses and Derived Products Template:Webarchive.</ref>

Top ten dry beans (Phaseolus spp) producers, 2020

Country	Production (tonnes)	Footnote
{{#invoke:flag	India}}	5,460,000	FAO figure
Template:MMR	3,053,012	Official figure
Template:BRA	3,035,290	Aggregated data
Template:USA	1,495,180	Semi-official data
Template:CHN	1,281,586	Official figure
Template:TAN	1,267,648	FAO figure
Template:MEX	1,056,071	Official figure
Template:KEN	774,366	FAO figure
Template:ARG	633,823	Semi-official data
Template:UGA	603,980	Official figure
Template:NoflagWorld	27,545,942	Aggregated data

Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Uses

Culinary

Beans can be cooked in a wide variety of casseroles, curries, salads, soups, and stews. They can be served whole or mashed alongside meat or toast, or included in an omelette or a flatbread wrap.<ref name="BBC Good Food">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Other options are to include them in a bake with a cheese sauce, a Mexican-style chili con carne, or to use them as a meat substitute in a burger or in falafels.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The French cassoulet is a slow-cooked stew with haricot beans, sausage, pork, mutton, and preserved goose.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Soybeans can be processed into bean curd (tofu)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> or fermented into a cake (tempeh);<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> these can be eaten fried or roasted like meat, or included in stir-fries, curries, and soups.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Most dry beans contain 21-25% protein by weight;<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> dry soybeans are 36.5% protein by weight.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

• Bean salad.jpg

  Bean salad

• Beans on toast - Vios 2024-01-09.jpg

  Beans on toast, Greece

• Senate bean soup, United States Capitol Visitor Center, April 2019.jpg

  Bean soup

• Bowl of cassoulet.JPG

  Cassoulet, France

• Chili con carne 6.jpg

  Chili con carne with meat, beans, and red peppers

• Vegetarian black bean burger with homefries.jpg

  Bean burger

• Deep fried bean-curd curry (2894128615).jpg

  Bean curd curry

• Tempeh tempe.jpg

  Tempeh cakes ready to cook, Indonesia

Other

File:Cluster bean-guar-Cyamopsis psoralioides-Cyamopsis tetragonolobus-TAMIL NADU73.jpg

Guar beans are used for their gum.

Guar beans are used for their gum, a galactomannan polysaccharide. It is used to thicken and stabilise foods and other products.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Health concerns

Toxins

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Some kinds of raw beans contain a harmful, flavourless toxin: the lectin phytohaemagglutinin, which must be destroyed by cooking. Red kidney beans are particularly toxic, but other types also pose risks of food poisoning. Even small quantities (4 or 5 raw beans) may cause severe stomachache, vomiting, and diarrhea. This risk does not apply to canned beans because they have already been cooked.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A recommended method is to boil the beans for at least ten minutes; under-cooked beans may be more toxic than raw beans.<ref name="FDA">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Cooking beans, without bringing them to a boil, in a slow cooker at a temperature well below boiling may not destroy toxins.<ref name="FDA" /> A case of poisoning by butter beans used to make falafel was reported; the beans were used instead of traditional broad beans or chickpeas, soaked and ground without boiling, made into patties, and shallow fried.<ref name="falafel">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Bean poisoning is not well known in the medical community, and many cases may be misdiagnosed or never reported; figures appear not to be available. In the case of the UK National Poisons Information Service, available only to health professionals, the dangers of beans other than red beans were not flagged Template:As of.<ref name="falafel" />

Fermentation is used in some parts of Africa to improve the nutritional value of beans by removing toxins. Inexpensive fermentation improves the nutritional impact of flour from dry beans and improves digestibility, according to research co-authored by Emire Shimelis, from the Food Engineering Program at Addis Ababa University.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Beans are a major source of dietary protein in Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.<ref>Summary: Fermentation 'improves nutritional value of beans' Template:Webarchive (Sub Saharan Africa page, Science and Development Network website). Paper: Influence of natural and controlled fermentations on α-galactosides, antinutrients and protein digestibility of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)</ref>

Other hazards

It is common to make beansprouts by letting some types of bean, often mung beans, germinate in moist and warm conditions; beansprouts may be used as ingredients in cooked dishes, or eaten raw or lightly cooked. There have been many outbreaks of disease from bacterial contamination, often by salmonella, listeria, and Escherichia coli, of beansprouts not thoroughly cooked,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> some causing significant mortality.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Many types of bean like kidney bean contain significant amounts of antinutrients that inhibit some enzyme processes in the body. Phytic acid, present in beans, interferes with bone growth and interrupts vitamin D metabolism.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Many beans, including broad beans, navy beans, kidney beans and soybeans, contain large sugar molecules, oligosaccharides (particularly raffinose and stachyose). A suitable oligosaccharide-cleaving enzyme is necessary to digest these. As the human digestive tract does not contain such enzymes, consumed oligosaccharides are digested by bacteria in the large intestine, producing gases such as methane, released as flatulence.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In human society

File:Carracci - Der Bohnenesser.jpeg

The Beaneater (c.1584) by Annibale Carracci

Beans have often been thought of as a food of the poor, as small farmers ate grains, vegetables, and got their protein from beans, while the wealthier classes were able to afford meat.<ref name="Albala 2007" /> European society has what Ken Albala calls "a class-based antagonism" to beans.<ref name="Albala 2007" />

Different cultures agree in disliking the flatulence that beans cause, and possess their own seasonings to attempt to remedy it: Mexico uses the herb epazote; India the aromatic resin asafoetida; Germany applies the herb savory; in the Middle East, cumin; and Japan the seaweed kombu.<ref name="Albala 2007" /> A substance for which there is evidence of effectiveness in reducing flatulence is the enzyme alpha-galactosidase;<ref name="Albala 2007">Template:Cite book</ref> extracted from the mould fungus Aspergillus niger, it breaks down glycolipids and glycoproteins.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The reputation of beans for flatulence is the theme of a children's song "Beans, Beans, the Musical Fruit".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The Mexican jumping bean is a segment of a seed pod occupied by the larva of the moth Cydia saltitans, and sold as a novelty. The pods start to jump when warmed in the palm of the hand. Scientists have suggested that the random walk that results may help the larva to find shade and so to survive on hot days.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

See also

• Baked beans
• List of bean soups
  • Fassoulada – a bean soup
• List of legume dishes

Bibliography

• Template:Cite book

External links

• Everett H. Bickley Collection, 1919–1980 Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
• Discovery Online: The Skinny On Why Beans Give You Gas
• Fermentation improves nutritional value of beans
• Cook's Thesaurus on Beans