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Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the original Anno Domini (AD) and Before Christ (BC) notations used for the same calendar era. The two notation systems are numerically equivalent: "2025 CE" and "AD 2025" each describe the current year; "400 BCE" and "400 BC" are the same year.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The expression can be traced back to 1615, when it first appears in a book by Johannes Kepler as the Template:Langx (Template:Transliteration),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=VulgarisAerae1 /> and to 1635 in English as "Vulgar Era".Template:Efn The term "Common Era" can be found in English as early as 1708,<ref name=1708CommonInEnglish /> and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish religious scholars. Since the late 20th century, BCE and CE have become popular in academic and scientific publications on the grounds that BCE and CE are religiously neutral terms.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Efn They have been promoted as more sensitive to non-Christians by not referring to Jesus, the central figure of Christianity, especially via the religious terms "Christ" and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("Lord") used by the other abbreviations.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite dictionary</ref>Template:Efn Nevertheless, its epoch remains the same as that used for the Anno Domini era.
HistoryEdit
OriginsEdit
Template:See also Around the year 525, the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus devised the principle of taking the moment that he believed to be the date of the incarnation of Jesus to be the point from which years are numbered (the epoch) of the Christian ecclesiastical calendar.<ref name=Pedersen /><ref>Doggett, L.E., (1992), "Calendars" in Seidelmann, P.K., The Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, Sausalito CA: University Science Books, 2.1</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as "{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}" (the years of our Lord Jesus Christ).<ref name=Pedersen />Template:Rp He did this to replace the Era of the Martyrs system (then used for some Easter tables) because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.<ref name=Pedersen />Template:Rp
This way of numbering years became more widespread in Europe, with its use by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed to have been the year of birth of Jesus,Template:Efn without a year zero.Template:Efn
Vulgar EraEdit
The term "Common Era" is traced back in English to its appearance as "Vulgar Era" to distinguish years of the Anno Domini era, which was in popular use, from dates of the regnal year (the year of the reign of a sovereign) typically used in national law.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> (The word 'vulgar' originally meant 'of the ordinary people', with no derogatory associations.<ref name="OED vulgar"/>)
The first use of the Latin term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}Template:Efn may be in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler.<ref name=VulgarisAerae1 /> Kepler uses it again, as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, in a 1616 table of ephemerides,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and again, as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, in 1617.<ref>Template:Cite book (His third use of "vulgaris aerae" (Latin for Common Era) (1617))</ref> An English edition of that book from 1635 may contain the earliest known use of "Vulgar Era" in its title page.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Efn A 1701 book edited by John Le Clerc includes the phrase "Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,Template:Nbsp6".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary gives 1716 as the date of first use of the term "vulgar era" (which it defines as "Christian era").<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Efn
The first published use of "Christian Era" may be the Latin phrase {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} on the title page of a 1584 theology book, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In 1649, the Latin phrase {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} appeared in the title of an English almanac.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> A 1652 ephemeris may be the first instance of the English use of "Christian Era".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The English phrase "Common Era" appears at least as early as 1708,<ref name=1708CommonInEnglish>Template:Cite book (Possibly the first use of common era in English (1708))</ref> and in a 1715 book on astronomy, it is used interchangeably with "Christian Era" and "Vulgar Era".<ref>Template:Cite book Before Christ and Christian Era appear on the same page 252, while Vulgar Era appears on page 250</ref> A 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense to refer to "the common era of the Jews".<ref>Template:Cite book [In this case, their refers to the Jews.]</ref> The phrase "before the common era" may have first appeared in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms in a translation of a book originally written in German. <ref>Template:Cite book [Possibly the first English use of "before the common era", with "vulgar era" synonymous with "common era" (1770)]</ref> The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era and common era synonymously.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> In 1835, in his book Living Oracles, Alexander Campbell wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> He refers to the common era as a synonym for vulgar era: "the fact that our Lord was born on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common era".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909), in at least one article, reports all three terms (Christian, Vulgar, Common Era) being commonly understood by the early 20th century.<ref>Template:Cite Encyclopedia.</ref>
The phrase "common era", in lower case, also appeared in the 19th century in a "generic" sense, not necessarily to refer to the Christian Era, but to any system of dates in everyday use throughout a civilization. Thus, "the common era of the Jews",<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> "the common era of the Mahometans",<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> "common era of the world",<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> or "the common era of the foundation of Rome".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> When it did refer to the Christian Era, it was sometimes qualified (e.g., "common era of the Incarnation",<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> "common era of the Nativity",<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> or "common era of the birth of Christ").<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
An adapted translation of Common Era into Latin as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}Template:Efn was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of Aleister Crowley, and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a replacement for AD.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
History of the use of the CE/BCE abbreviationEdit
Although Jews have the Hebrew calendar, they often use the Gregorian calendar without the AD prefix, as Judaism does not recognize Jesus as the Messiah.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> As early as 1825, the abbreviation VE (for Vulgar Era) was in use among Jews to denote years in the Western calendar.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} [19 Sivan 5585 AM is 5 June 1825. VE is likely an abbreviation for Vulgar Era.]</ref> Template:As of, Common Era notation has also been in use for Hebrew lessons for more than a century.<ref name=Gormley /> Jews have also used the term Current Era.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Contemporary usageEdit
Some academics in the fields of theology, education, archaeology and history have adopted CE and BCE notation despite some disagreement.<ref>See, for example, the Society for Historical Archaeology states in its more recent style guide "Do not use CE (common era), BP (before present), or BCE; convert these expressions to AD and BC." (In section I 5 the Society explains how to use "years BP" in connection with radiocarbon ages.) {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} whereas the American Anthropological Association style guide takes a different approach, supporting the use of "CE" and "BCE." {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A study conducted in 2014 found that the BCE/CE notation is not growing at the expense of BC and AD notation in the scholarly literature, and that both notations are used in a relatively stable fashion.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
AustraliaEdit
In 2011, media reports suggested that the BC/AD notation in Australian school textbooks would be replaced by BCE/CE notation.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The change drew opposition from some politicians and church leaders. Weeks after the story broke, the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority denied the rumours and stated that the BC/AD notation would remain, with CE and BCE as an optional suggested learning activity.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
CanadaEdit
In 2013, the Canadian Museum of Civilization (now the Canadian Museum of History) in Gatineau (opposite Ottawa), which had previously switched to BCE/CE, decided to change back to BC/AD in material intended for the public while retaining BCE/CE in academic content.<ref>"Museum of Civilization putting the 'Christ' back in history as BC and AD return", by Sean Kilpatrick/The Canadian Press, National Post, 27 February 2013</ref>
NepalEdit
The notation is in particularly common use in Nepal in order to disambiguate dates from the local (Indian or Hindu) calendar, Bikram or Vikram Sambat. Disambiguation is needed because the era of the Hindu calendar is quite close to the Common Era.
United KingdomEdit
In 2002, an advisory panel for the religious education syllabus for England and Wales recommended introducing BCE/CE dates to schools,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and by 2018 some local education authorities were using them.<ref name=Tel-NT />
In 2018, the National Trust said it would continue to use BC/AD as its house style.<ref name=Tel-NT>"National Trust tells properties to stop dropping BC and AD out of fear it might offend non-Christians", The Daily Telegraph, by Henry Bodkin, 12 November 2018</ref> English Heritage explains its era policy thus: "It might seem strange to use a Christian calendar system when referring to British prehistory, but the BC/AD labels are widely used and understood."<ref>Stonehenge glossary, "BC and AD" English Heritage</ref> Some parts of the BBC use BCE/CE, but some presenters have said they will not.<ref name=Tel-NT /> As of October 2019, the BBC News style guide has entries for AD and BC, but not for CE or BCE.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The style guide for The Guardian says, under the entry for CE/BCE: "some people prefer CE (common era, current era, or Christian era) and BCE (before common era, etc.) to AD and BC, which, however, remain our style".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
United StatesEdit
In the United States, the use of the BCE/CE notation in textbooks was reported in 2005 to be growing.<ref name=Gormley /> Some publications have transitioned to using it exclusively. For example, the 2007 World Almanac was the first edition to switch to BCE/CE, ending a period of 138 years in which the traditional BC/AD dating notation was used. BCE/CE is used by the College Board in its history tests,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and by the Norton Anthology of English Literature. Others have taken a different approach. The US-based History Channel uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as Jerusalem and Judaism.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }};{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The 2006 style guide for the Episcopal Diocese Maryland Church News says that BCE and CE should be used.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In June 2006, in the United States, the Kentucky State School Board reversed its decision to use BCE and CE in the state's new Program of Studies, leaving education of students about these concepts a matter of local discretion.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
RationalesEdit
SupportEdit
The use of CE in Jewish scholarship was historically motivated by the desire to avoid the implicit "Our Lord" in the abbreviation AD.Template:Efn Although other aspects of dating systems are based in Christian origins, AD is a direct reference to Jesus as Lord.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Ostling">Template:Cite magazine</ref> Proponents of the Common Era notation assert that the use of BCE/CE shows sensitivity to those who use the same year numbering system as the one that originated with and is currently used by Christians, but who are not themselves Christian.<ref name="RelTolrnc" /> Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan has argued:<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
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[T]he Christian calendar no longer belongs exclusively to Christians. People of all faiths have taken to using it simply as a matter of convenience. There is so much interaction between people of different faiths and cultures – different civilizations, if you like – that some shared way of reckoning time is a necessity. And so the Christian Era has become the Common Era.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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Adena K. Berkowitz, in her application to argue before the United States Supreme Court, opted to use BCE and CE because, "Given the multicultural society that we live in, the traditional Jewish designationsTemplate:SndB.C.E. and C.E.Template:Snd cast a wider net of inclusion."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In the World History Encyclopedia, Joshua J. Mark wrote "Non-Christian scholars, especially, embraced [CE and BCE] because they could now communicate more easily with the Christian community. Jewish, Islamic, Hindu and Buddhist scholars could retain their [own] calendar but refer to events using the Gregorian Calendar as BCE and CE without compromising their own beliefs about the divinity of Jesus of Nazareth."<ref>Template:Cite Encyclopedia</ref> In History Today, Michael Ostling wrote: "BC/AD Dating: In the year of whose Lord? The continuing use of AD and BC is not only factually wrong but also offensive to many who are not Christians."<ref name="Ostling" />
OppositionEdit
Critics note the fact that there is no difference in the epoch of the two systems—chosen to be close to the date of birth of Jesus. Since the year numbers are the same, BCE and CE dates should be equally offensive to other religions as BC and AD.<ref name="Pollick-2024">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Roman Catholic priest and writer on interfaith issues Raimon Panikkar argued that the BCE/CE usage is the less inclusive option since they are still using the Christian calendar numbers and forcing it on other nations.<ref name=Panikkar>Template:Cite book</ref> In 1993, the English-language expert Kenneth G. Wilson speculated a slippery slope scenario in his style guide that, "if we do end by casting aside the AD/BC convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system [that is, the method of numbering years] itself, given its Christian basis."<ref name=Wilson />
Some Christians are offended by the removal of the reference to Jesus,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> including the Southern Baptist Convention.<ref name="SBC" />
Conventions in style guidesEdit
The abbreviation BCE, just as with BC, always follows the year number. Unlike AD, which still often precedes the year number, CE always follows the year number (if context requires that it be written at all).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Thus, the current year is written as 2025 in both notations (or, if further clarity is needed, as 2025 CE, or as AD 2025), and the year that Socrates died is represented as 399 BCE (the same year that is represented by 399 BC in the BC/AD notation). The abbreviations are sometimes written with small capital letters, or with periods (e.g., "B.C.E." or "C.E.").<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The US-based Society of Biblical Literature style guide for academic texts on religion prefers BCE/CE to BC/AD.<ref>SBL Handbook of Style Society of Biblical Literature 1999 "8.1.2 ERAS – The preferred style is B.C.E. and C.E. (with periods). If you use A.D. and B.C., remember that A.D. precedes the date and B.C. follows it. (For the use of these abbreviations in titles, see § 7.1.3.2.)"</ref>
Similar conventions in other languagesEdit
- In Germany, Jews in Berlin seem to have already been using words translating to "(before the) common era" in the 18th century, while others like Moses Mendelssohn opposed this usage as it would hinder the integration of Jews into German society.<ref name="Jewish Joke" /> The formulation seems to have persisted among German Jews in the 19th century in forms like {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (before the common chronology).<ref>{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (19 May 1838). See page 175 in Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums: Ein unpartheiisches Organ für alles jüdische Interesse in Betreff von Politik, Religion, Literatur, Geschichte, Sprachkunde und Belletristik, Volume 2 (Leipzig 1838).</ref><ref>Template:Aut, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Leipzig 1862–1869).</ref> In 1938 Nazi Germany, the use of this convention was also prescribed by the National Socialist Teachers League.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, it was soon discovered that many German Jews had been using the convention ever since the 18th century, and Time magazine found it ironic to see "Aryans following Jewish example nearly 200 years later".<ref name="Jewish Joke">Template:Cite magazine</ref>
- In Spanish, common forms used for "BC" are {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (for "{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}", "before Christ"), with variations in punctuation and sometimes the use of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) instead of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} also acknowledges the use of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Langx) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Langx).<ref name="RAE">Template:Cite book</ref> In scholarly writing, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is the equivalent of the English "BCE", "{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}" or "Before the Common Era".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- In Welsh, OC can be expanded to equivalents of both AD ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) and CE ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}); for dates before the Common Era, CC (traditionally, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is used exclusively.
- In Russian since the October Revolution (1917) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, lit. before our era) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} lit. of our era) are used almost universally. Within Christian churches {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, i.e. before/after the birth of Christ, equivalent to Template:Langx) remains in use.
- In Polish, "p.n.e." ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, lit. before our era) and "n.e." ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, lit. of our era) are commonly used in historical and scientific literature. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (before Christ) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (after Christ) see sporadic usage, mostly in religious publications.
- In China, upon the foundation of the Republic of China, the Government in Nanking adopted the Republic of China calendar with 1912 designated as year 1, but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was Template:Lang-zh ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Western Era"), which is still used in Taiwan in formal documents. In 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Common Era") for both internal and external affairs in mainland China. This notation was extended to Hong Kong in 1997 and Macau in 1999 (de facto extended in 1966) through Annex III of Hong Kong Basic Law and Macau Basic Law, thus eliminating the ROC calendar in these areas. BCE is translated into Chinese as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Before the Common Era").
- In Czech, the "n. l." ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} which translates as of our year count) and "př. n. l." or "před n. l." ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} meaning before our year count) is used, always after the year number. The direct translation of AD ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, abbreviated as L. P.) or BC ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, abbreviated as př. Kr.) is seen as archaic.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- In Croatian the common form used for BC and AD are pr. Kr. (prije Krista, "before Christ")<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref> and p. Kr. (poslije Krista, after Christ).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The abbreviations pr. n. e. (prije nove ere, before new era)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and n. e. (nove ere, (of the) new era)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> have also recently been introduced.
- In Danish, "f.v.t." ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, before our time reckoning) and "e.v.t." ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, after our time reckoning) are used as BCE/CE are in English. Also commonly used are "f.Kr." ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, before Christ) and "e.Kr." ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, after Christ), which are both placed after the year number in contrast with BC/AD in English.
- In Macedonian, the terms "п.н.е." (пред нашата ера "before our era") and "н.е." (наша ера "our era") are used in every aspect.Template:Cn
- In Estonian, "e.m.a." ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, before our time reckoning) and "m.a.j." ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, according to our time reckoning) are used as BCE and CE, respectively. Also in use are terms "eKr" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, before Christ) and "pKr" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, after Christ). In all cases, the abbreviation is written after the year number.
- In Finnish, "eaa." ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, before time reckoning) and "jaa." ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, after the start of time reckoning) are used as BCE and CE, respectively. Also (decreasingly) in use are terms "eKr", ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, before Christ) and "jKr". ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, after Christ). In all cases, the abbreviation is written after the year number.