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Historical Vedic religion

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File:Late Vedic Culture (1100-500 BCE).png
The spread of the Vedic culture in the late Vedic period. Aryavarta was limited to northwest India and the western Ganges plain, while Greater Magadha in the east was occupied by non-Vedic Indo-Aryans.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The location of shakhas is labeled in maroon.

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The historical Vedic religion, also called Vedism or Brahmanism, and sometimes ancient Hinduism or Vedic Hinduism,Template:Efn constituted the religious ideas and practices prevalent amongst some of the Indo-Aryan peoples of the northwest Indian subcontinent (Punjab and the western Ganges plain) during the Vedic period (Template:Circa 1500–500 BCE).Template:Sfn<ref name=britannicavedic>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn These ideas and practices are found in the Vedic texts, and some Vedic rituals are still practised today.Template:Sfn<ref name=Witzel2004/><ref name=Witzel_Kalasha/> The Vedic religion is one of the major traditions which shaped modern Hinduism, though present-day Hinduism is significantly different from the historical Vedic religion.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Efn

The Vedic religion has roots in the Indo-Iranian culture and religion of the Sintashta (Template:Circa 2200–1750 BCE) and Andronovo (Template:Circa 2000–1150 BCE) cultures of Eurasian Steppe.Template:SfnTemplate:Efn This Indo-Iranian religion borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"Template:SfnTemplate:Efn from the non-Indo-Aryan Bactria–Margiana culture (BMAC; 2250–1700 BCE) of south of Central Asia, when pastoral Indo-Aryan tribes stayed there as a separate people in the early 2nd millennium BCE. From the BMAC Indo-Aryan tribes migrated to the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, and the Vedic religion developed there during the early Vedic period (Template:Circa 1500–1100 BCE) as a variant of Indo-Aryan religion, influenced by the remnants of the late Indus Valley Civilisation (2600–1900 BCE).Template:Sfn

During the late Vedic period (Template:Circa 1100–500 BCE) Brahmanism developed out of the Vedic religion, as an ideology of the Kuru-Panchala realm which expanded into a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala realm and the domination of the non-Vedic Magadha cultural sphere. Brahmanism was one of the major influences that shaped contemporary Hinduism, when it was synthesized with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain (which also gave rise to Buddhism and Jainism), and with local religious traditions.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref group=web name="EB_Vedic religion"/>Template:SfnTemplate:Efn

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others: the Soma rituals; fire rituals involving oblations (havir); and the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice).<ref name="Prasoon"/><ref name="Griffith 1987">Template:Cite book</ref> The rites of grave burials as well as cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Deities emphasized in the Vedic religion include Dyaus, Indra, Agni, Rudra and Varuna, and important ethical concepts include satya and ṛta.

TerminologyEdit

Vedism and BrahmanismEdit

Vedism refers to the oldest form of the Vedic religion, when Indo-Aryans entered into the valley of the Indus River in multiple waves during the 2nd millennium BCE. Brahmanism refers to the further developed form of the late Vedic period which took shape at the Ganges basin around Template:Circa 1000 BCE.<ref name="Heesterman1987">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Efn According to Heesterman, "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on the brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society."<ref name="Heesterman1987"/> During the late Vedic period, the Brahmanas and early Upanishads were composed.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Both Vedism and Brahmanism regard the Veda as sacred, but Brahmanism is more inclusive, incorporating doctrines and themes beyond the Vedas with practices like temple worship, puja, meditation, renunciation, vegetarianism, the role of the guru, and other non-Vedic elements important to Hindu religious life.<ref name="Heesterman1987" />

Ancient Hinduism and Vedic HinduismEdit

The terms ancient Hinduism and Vedic Hinduism have also been used when referring to the ancient Vedic religion.Template:Efn

According to Heinrich von Stietencron, in 19th century western publications, the Vedic religion was believed to be different from and unrelated to Hinduism. Instead, Hinduism was thought to be linked to the Hindu epics and the Puranas through sects based on purohita, tantras and Bhakti.Template:Sfn In response to western colonialism and (Protestant) proselytizing, Hindu reform movements like the Brahmo Samaj and the Neo-Vedanta in the late 19th and early 20th century rejected the 'superstitions' of Puranic Hinduism, which in their view had deviated from the Vedic heritage, instead propagating a return to the Vedas and to restore an "imagined"Template:Sfn original, rational and monotheistic ancient Hinduism with an equal standing as Protestant Christianity.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfnp

In the 20th century, the neo-Hindu emphasis on Vedic roots, and a better understanding of the Vedic religion and its shared heritage and theology with contemporary Hinduism, led scholars to view the historical Vedic religion as ancestral to modern Hinduism.Template:Sfn The historical Vedic religion is now generally accepted to be a predecessor of modern Hinduism, but they are not the same because the textual evidence suggests significant differences between the two.Template:Efn These include the belief in an afterlife instead of the later developed reincarnation and samsāra concepts.Template:SfnTemplate:Page needed Nevertheless, while "it is usually taught that the beginnings of historical Hinduism date from around the beginning of the Common Era," when "the key tendencies, the crucial elements that would be encompassed in Hindu traditions, collectively came together,"Template:Sfn some scholars have come to view the term "Hinduism" as encompassing Vedism and Brahmanism, in addition to the recent synthesis.Template:Sfn

Origins and developmentEdit

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Indo-Aryan Vedic religionEdit

The Vedic religion refers to the religious beliefs of some Vedic Indo-Aryan tribes, the aryas,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Efn who migrated into the Indus River valley region of the Indian subcontinent after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation.Template:SfnTemplate:Efn The Vedic religion, and subsequent Brahmanism, centre on the myths and ritual ideologies of the Vedas, as distinguished from Agamic, Tantric and sectarian forms of Indian religion, which take recourse to the authority of non-Vedic textual sources.Template:Sfn The Vedic religion is described in the Vedas and associated with voluminous Vedic literature, including the early Upanishads, preserved into the modern times by the different priestly schools.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The religion existed in the western Ganges plain in the early Vedic period from Template:Circa 1500–1100 BCE,Template:SfnTemplate:Efn and developed into Brahmanism in the late Vedic period (Template:Circa 1100–500 BCE).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The eastern Ganges plain was dominated by another Indo-Aryan complex, which rejected the later Brahmanical ideology and gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism, and the Maurya Empire.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Indo-European roots and syncreticismEdit

The Indo-Aryans were speakers of a branch of the Indo-European language family which originated in the Sintashta culture and further developed into the Andronovo culture, which in turn developed out of the Kurgan culture of the Central Asian steppes.Template:SfnTemplate:EfnTemplate:Efn The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesized Proto-Indo-European religion,<ref name="Woodard2006">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Efn and shows relations with rituals from the Andronovo culture, from which the Indo-Aryan people descended.Template:Sfn According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.Template:Sfn It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements"Template:Sfn which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"Template:Sfn from the Bactria–Margiana culture (BMAC).Template:Sfn This syncretic influence is supported by at least 383 non-Indo-European words that were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.Template:Sfn According to Anthony,

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Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.Template:Sfn{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, are found in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom.Template:Sfn The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving.Template:Sfn The Old Indic term r'ta, meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rig Veda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom.Template:Sfn Old Indic gods, including Indra, were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

South Asian influencesEdit

The Vedic religion was the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations".Template:Sfn White (2003) cites three other scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley civilization.Template:Sfn

It is unclear if the theory in diverse Vedic texts actually reflect the folk practices, iconography, and other practical aspects of the Vedic religion. The Vedic religion changed when Indo-Aryan people migrated into the Ganges Plain after Template:Circa 1100 BCE and became settled farmers,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn further syncretizing with the native cultures of northern India.Template:SfnTemplate:Page neededTemplate:Sfn The evidence suggests that the Vedic religion evolved in "two superficially contradictory directions", namely an ever more "elaborate, expensive, and specialized system of rituals",Template:Sfn which survives in the present-day srauta-ritual,<ref name="West2010"/> and "abstraction and internalization of the principles underlying ritual and cosmic speculation" within oneself,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn akin to the Jain and Buddhist tradition.

Aspects of the historical Vedic religion still continue in modern times. For instance, the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals, and the complex Vedic rituals of Śrauta are practised in Kerala and coastal Andhra.Template:Sfn The Kalash people residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practise a form of the ancient Vedic religion.<ref name="West2010"/>Template:Efn It has also been suggested by Michael Witzel that Shinto, the native religion of Japan, contains some influences from the ancient Vedic religion.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

BrahmanismEdit

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Historical BrahminismEdit

Brahmanism, also called Brahminism or Brahmanical Hinduism, developed out of the Vedic religion, incorporating non-Vedic religious ideas, and expanding to a region stretching from the northwest Indian subcontinent to the Ganges valley.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Brahmanism included the Vedic corpus, but also post-Vedic texts such as the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras, which gave prominence to the priestly (Brahmin) caste of the society,Template:Sfn Heesterman also mentions the post-Vedic Smriti (Puranas and the Epics),Template:Sfn which are also incorporated in the later Smarta tradition. The emphasis on ritual and the dominant position of Brahmins developed as an ideology in the Kuru-Pancala realm, and expanded over a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala kingdomTemplate:Sfn and its incorporation into the Magadha-based empires. It co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

The word Brahmanism was coined by Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso (1520–1596) in the 16th century.<ref name="Županov2005">Template:Cite book</ref> Historically, and still by some modern authors, the word 'Brahmanism' was used in English to refer to the Hindu religion, treating the term Brahmanism as synonymous with Hinduism, and using it interchangeably.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Michael S. Allen criticises the use of "Brahminism" for the "greater Vedic tradition", arguing that it obscures the contribution of non-Brahmins to the tradition.<ref>Template:Harvnb: "This greater Vedic tradition is sometimes referred to as "Brahminism," but that label is less than ideal. First, as McGovern (2019) has pointed out in a recent book, the term "Brahmin" was originally not exclusive to followers of the Vedas, but was also used by Buddhists, Jains, and others. Second, although (Vedic) Brahmins were jealous of their teaching authority, they regarded the Vedas as the ultimate source of that authority, and referring to their tradition as "Brahminism" rather than "Vedism" would be subject to the same objections that have led scholars of Tibetan Buddhism to abandon the term "Lamaism." Third, and perhaps most importantly, the term obscures the participation of non-Brahmins in the greater Vedic tradition."</ref> In the 18th and 19th centuries, Brahminism was the most common term used in English for Hinduism. Brahmanism gave importance to Absolute Reality (Brahman) speculations in the early Upanishads, as these terms are etymologically linked, which developed from post-Vedic ideas during the late Vedic era.<ref name="britannicavedic" /><ref name="Maritain2005p6">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Biardeau1994p17">Template:Cite book</ref> The concept of Brahman is posited as that which existed before the creation of the universe, which constitutes all of existence thereafter, and into which the universe will dissolve, followed by similar endless creation-maintenance-destruction cycles.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn<ref name="james122">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Efn

The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn With the growth of political entities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins including; the Sramanic movement, the conquests of eastern empires from Magadha including the Nanda Empire and the Mauryan Empire,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and also invasions and foreign rule of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent which brought in new political entities.Template:Sfn This was overcome by providing new servicesTemplate:Sfn and incorporating the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and local religious traditions, giving rise to contemporary Hinduism.Template:Sfn<ref group=web name="EB_Vedic religion" />Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Efn This "new Brahmanism" appealed to rulers, who were attracted to the supernatural powers and the practical advice Brahmins could provide,Template:Sfn and resulted in a resurgence of Brahmanical influence, dominating Indian society since the classical Age of Hinduism in the early centuries CE.Template:Sfn

As a polemical termEdit

Nowadays, the term Brahmanism, used interchangeably with Brahminism, is used in several ways. It denotes the specific Brahmanical rituals and worldview as preserved in the Śrauta ritual, as distinct from the wide range of popular cultic activity with little connection with them. Brahminism also refers specifically to the Brahminical ideology, which sees Brahmins as naturally privileged people entitled to rule and dominate society.<ref>Template:Cite Q</ref> The term is frequently used by anti-Brahmin opponents, who object against their domination of Indian society and their exclusivist ideology.<ref>'Hindutva Is Nothing But Brahminism', Outlook, 5 April 2002.</ref> They follow the outline of 19th century colonial rulers, who viewed India's culture as corrupt and degenerate, and its population as irrational. In this view, derived from a Christian understanding of religion, the original "God-given religion" was corrupted by priests, in this case Brahmins, and their religion, "Brahminism", which was supposedly imposed on the Indian population.<ref name="Gelders_Delders_2003">Raf Gelders, Willem Delders (2003),Mantras of Anti-Brahmanism: Colonial Experience of Indian Intellectuals, Economic and Political Weekly 38(43):4611–4617. DOI:10.2307/4414197</ref> Reformist Hindus, and others such as Ambedkar, structured their criticism along similar lines.<ref name="Gelders_Delders_2003"/>

Textual historyEdit

File:Isapur sacrificial pillar of Vasishka.jpg
A Yupa sacrificial post of the time of Vasishka, 3rd century CE. Isapur, near Mathura. Mathura Museum.

Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit, are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and some of the older UpanishadsTemplate:Efn are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices. These texts are also considered as a part of the scripture of contemporary Hinduism.<ref name="Goodall2001ix">Template:Cite book</ref>

<poem> Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? — Nasadiya Sukta, Rig Veda, 10:129-6<ref name="Kramer1986">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Christian2011">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn </poem>

CharacteristicsEdit

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The idea of reincarnation, or saṃsāra, is not mentioned in the early layers of the historic Vedic religion texts such as the Rigveda.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The later layers of the Rigveda do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The early layers of the Vedas do not mention the doctrine of Karma and rebirth, but mention the belief in an afterlife.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to Sayers, these earliest layers of the Vedic literature show ancestor worship and rites such as sraddha (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the Aranyakas and the Upanisads show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the Upanishads of the late Vedic period, predating the Buddha and the Mahavira.<ref name="damienkeown32">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn Similarly, the later layers of the Vedic literature such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (Template:Circa 800 BCE) – such as in section 4.4 – discuss the earliest versions of the Karma doctrine as well as causality.<ref name="Tull1989p2">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The ancient Vedic religion lacked the belief in reincarnation and concepts such as Saṃsāra or Nirvana. It was a complex animistic religion with polytheistic and pantheistic aspects. Ancestor worship was an important, maybe the central component, of the ancient Vedic religion. Elements of the ancestors cult are still common in modern Hinduism in the form of Śrāddha.Template:SfnTemplate:Page needed<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

According to Olivelle, some scholars state that the renouncer tradition was an "organic and logical development of ideas found in the Vedic religious culture", while others state that these emerged from the "indigenous non-Aryan population". This scholarly debate is a longstanding one, and is ongoing.Template:Sfn

RitualsEdit

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File:Yajna1.jpg
A Śrauta yajna being performed in Kerala

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others:<ref name="Prasoon">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Verify source

  • Fire rituals involving oblations (havir):
    • The Agnyadheya, or installation of the fire<ref name=":12">Template:Cite book</ref>
    • The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni, a sun charm<ref name=":12" />
    • The Darshapurnamsa, the new and full moon sacrifices<ref name=":12" />
    • The four seasonal (Cāturmāsya) sacrifices<ref name=":12" />
    • The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the fire altar<ref name=":12" />
  • The Pashubandhu, the (semi-)annual animal sacrifice<ref name=":12" />
  • The Soma rituals, which involved the extraction, utility and consumption of Soma:<ref name=":12" />
    • The Jyotishtoma<ref name=":12" />
      • The Agnishtoma<ref name=":12" />
      • The Ukthya<ref name=":12" />
      • The Sodashin<ref name=":12" />
      • The Atyagnishtoma<ref name=":12" />
      • The Atiratra<ref name=":12" />
      • The Aptoryama<ref name=":12" />
      • The Vajapeya<ref name=":12" />
  • The royal consecration (Rajasuya) sacrifice
  • The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) or a Yajna dedicated to the glory, wellbeing and prosperity of the kingdom or empire<ref name="Griffith 1987"/>
  • The Purushamedha<ref name=":12" />
  • The rituals and charms referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
  • The Gomedha or cow sacrifice:
    • The Taittiriya Brahmana of the Yajur Veda gives instructions for selecting the cow for the sacrifice depending on the deity.<ref name=gomedha>Template:Cite book</ref>
    • Panchasaradiya sava – celebration where 17 cows are immolated once every five years. The Taittiriya Brahmana advocates the Panchasaradiya for those who want to be great.<ref name=gomedha/>
    • Sulagava – sacrifice where roast beef is offered. It is mentioned in the Grihya Sutra<ref name=gomedha/>
    • According to Dr. R. Mitra, the offered animal was intended for consumption as detailed in the Asvalayana Sutra. The Gopatha Brahmana lists the different individuals who are to receive the various parts like Pratiharta (neck and hump), the Udgatr, the Neshta, the Sadasya, the householder who performs the sacrifice (the two right feet), his wife (the two left feet) and so on.<ref name=gomedha/>

The Hindu rites of cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period; while they are attested from early times in the Cemetery H culture, there is a late Rigvedic reference invoking forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)". (RV 10.15.14)

PantheonEdit

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File:Bangkok Wat Arun Phra Prang Indra Erawan.jpg
Detail of the Phra Prang, the central tower of the Wat Arun ("Temple of Dawn") in Bangkok, Thailand, showing the ancient Vedic god Indra and three-headed Erawan (Airavata).Template:Citation needed

Though a large number of names for devas occur in the Rigveda, only 33 devas are counted, eleven each of earth, space, and heaven.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Vedic pantheon knows two classes, Devas and Asuras. The Devas (Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga, Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. The Rigveda is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic Indra, Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, and Soma, the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Also prominent is Varuna (often paired with Mitra) and the group of "All-gods", the Vishvadevas.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

SagesEdit

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In the Hindu tradition, the revered sages of this era were Yajnavalkya,<ref name=staal3>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Atharvan,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Atri,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Bharadvaja,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Gautama Maharishi, Jamadagni,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Kashyapa,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Vasistha,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Bhrigu,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Kutsa,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Pulastya, Kratu, Pulaha, Vishwamitra Narayana, Kanva, Rishabha, Vamadeva, and Angiras.Template:Citation needed

Ethics – satya and rtaEdit

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Ethics in the Vedas are based on concepts like satya and ṛta.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In the Vedas and later sutras, the meaning of the word satya (Template:Linktext) evolves into an ethical concept about truthfulness and is considered an important virtue.<ref name="knt">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>A Dhand (2002), The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism, Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pages 347–372</ref> It means being true and consistent with reality in one's thought, speech and action.<ref name="knt" />

Vedic Template:IAST and its Avestan equivalent {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} are both thought by some to derive from Proto-Indo-Iranian *Hr̥tás "truth",<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> which in turn may continue from a possible Proto-Indo-European *Template:PIE "properly joined, right, true", from a presumed root *Template:PIE. The derivative noun ṛta is defined as "fixed or settled order, rule, divine law or truth".<ref>Monier-Williams (1899:223b)</ref> As Mahony (1998) notes, however, the term can be translated as "that which has moved in a fitting manner" – although this meaning is not actually cited by authoritative Sanskrit dictionaries it is a regular derivation from the verbal root -, and abstractly as "universal law" or "cosmic order", or simply as "truth".<ref>Mahony (1998:3).</ref> The latter meaning dominates in the Avestan cognate to Ṛta, aša.<ref>Oldenberg (1894) p 30. Cf. also Thieme (1960) p 308.</ref>

Owing to the nature of Vedic Sanskrit, the term Ṛta can be used to indicate numerous things, either directly or indirectly, and both Indian and European scholars have experienced difficulty in arriving at fitting interpretations for Ṛta in all of its various usages in the Vedas, though the underlying sense of "ordered action" remains universally evident.<ref>Cf. Ramakrishna (1965) pp. 45–46</ref>

The term is also found in the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples.<ref name="DG_1963_46">Template:Harvnb.</ref> The term dharma was already used in the later Brahmanical thoughts, where it was conceived as an aspect of ṛta.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Vedic mythologyEdit

The central myth at the base of Vedic ritual surrounds Indra who, inebriated by Soma, slays the dragon (ahi) Vritra, freeing the rivers, the cows, and Dawn.

Vedic mythology contains numerous elements which are common to Indo-European mythological traditions, like the mythologies of Persia, Greece, and Rome, and those of the Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic peoples. The Vedic god Indra in part corresponds to Dyaus Pitar, the Sky Father, Zeus, Jupiter, Thor and Tyr, or Perun. The deity Yama, the lord of the dead, is hypothesized to be related to Yima of Persian mythology. Vedic hymns refer to these and other deities, often 33, consisting of 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, and in the late Rigvedas, Prajapati. These deities belong to the 3 regions of the universe or heavens, the earth, and the intermediate space.

Some major deities of the Vedic tradition include Indra, Dyaus, Surya, Agni, Ushas, Vayu, Varuna, Mitra, Aditi, Yama, Soma, Sarasvati, Prithvi, and Rudra.<ref name = AAM>Template:Cite book</ref>

Post-Vedic religionsEdit

File:1500-1200 BCE, Vivaha sukta, Rigveda 10.85.16-27, Sanskrit, Devanagari, manuscript page.jpg
The hymn 10.85 of the Rigveda includes the Vivaha-sukta (above). Its recitation continues to be a part of Hindu wedding rituals.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE. The period between 800 BCE and 200 BCE is the formative period for later Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "ascetic reformism",Template:Sfn while the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".Template:Sfn Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period", when "traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The Brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic period".Template:Sfn

Brahmanism evolved into Hinduism, which is significantly different from the preceding Brahmanism,Template:Efn though "it is also convenient to have a single term for the whole complex of interrelated traditions."Template:Sfn The transition from ancient Brahmanism to schools of Hinduism was a form of evolution in interaction with non-Vedic traditions. This transition preserved many central ideas and theosophy found in the Vedas while synergistically integrating non-Vedic ideas.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Efn While part of Hinduism, Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism share their concern with escape from the suffering of existence with Buddhism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Continuation of orthodox ritualEdit

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According to Axel Michaels, the Vedic gods declined but did not disappear, and local cults were assimilated into the Vedic-Brahmanic pantheon, which changed into the Hindu pantheon. Deities such as Shiva and Vishnu became more prominent and gave rise to Shaivism and Vaishnavism.Template:Sfn

According to David Knipe, some communities in India have preserved and continue to practice portions of the historical Vedic religion, as observed in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh states and elsewhere.Template:Sfn According to the historian and Sanskrit linguist Michael Witzel, some of the rituals of the Kalash people have elements of the historical Vedic religion, but there are also some differences such as the presence of fire next to the altar instead of "in the altar" as in the Vedic religion.<ref name=Witzel2004>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Witzel_Kalasha>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Mīmāṃsā and VedantaEdit

Mīmāṃsā philosophers argue that there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Mīmāṃsā argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Of the continuation of the Vedic tradition in the Upanishads, Fowler writes the following: Template:Cquote

The Upanishads gradually evolved into Vedanta, which is one of the primary schools of thought within Hinduism. Vedanta considers itself "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Sramana traditionEdit

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The non-Vedic śramaṇa traditions existed alongside Brahmanism.<ref name="S. Cromwell Crawford 1972">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Efn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions,<ref name="S. Cromwell Crawford 1972"/> reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India".Template:Sfn Jainism and Buddhism evolved out of the Shramana tradition.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

There are Jaina references to 22 prehistoric tirthankaras. In this view, Jainism peaked at the time of Mahavira (traditionally put in the 6th century BCE).<ref>Helmuth von Glasenapp, Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.24. "Thus not only nothing, from the philosophical and the historical point of view, comes in the way of the supposition that Jainism was established by Parsva around 800 BCE, but it is rather confirmed in everything that we know of the spiritual life of that period."</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Buddhism, traditionally put from c. 500 BCE, declined in India over the 5th to 12th centuries in favor of Puranic Hinduism<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> and Islam.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

See alsoEdit

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NotesEdit

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ReferencesEdit

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SourcesEdit

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