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Celtiberian or Northeastern Hispano-Celtic is an extinct Indo-European language of the Celtic branch spoken by the Celtiberians in an area of the Iberian Peninsula between the headwaters of the Douro, Tagus, Júcar and Turia rivers and the Ebro river. This language is directly attested in nearly 200 inscriptions dated from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD, mainly in Celtiberian script, a direct adaptation of the northeastern Iberian script, but also in the Latin alphabet. The longest extant Celtiberian inscriptions are those on three Botorrita plaques, bronze plaques from Botorrita near Zaragoza, dating to the early 1st century BC, labeled Botorrita I, III and IV (Botorrita II is in Latin). Shorter and more fragmentary is the Novallas bronze tablet.<ref>Francisco Beltrán Lloris , Carlos Jordán Cólera , Borja Díaz Ariño1, and Ignacio Simón Cornago. Journal of Roman Archaeology 34 (2021), 713–733 doi:10.1017/S1047759421000635</ref>

OverviewEdit

Under the P/Q Celtic hypothesis, and like its Iberian relative Gallaecian, Celtiberian is classified as a Q Celtic language, putting it in the same category as Goidelic and not P-Celtic like Gaulish or Brittonic.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Under the Insular/Continental Celtic hypothesis, Celtiberian and Gaulish are grouped together as Continental Celtic languages but this grouping is paraphyletic: no evidence suggests the two shared any common innovation separately from Insular Celtic. According to Ranko Matasovic in the introduction to his 2009 Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic : "Celtiberian...is almost certainly an independent branch on the Celtic genealogical tree, one that became separated from the others very early."<ref>Ranko Matasovic 2009 Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic Leiden: Brill, 2009, p.13 https://archive.org/stream/EtymologicalDictionaryOfProtoCeltic/Etymological%20Dictionary%20of%20Proto-Celtic_djvu.txt</ref>

Celtiberian has a fully inflected relative pronoun ios (as does, for instance, Ancient Greek), an ancient feature that was not preserved by the other Celtic languages, and the particles {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'and' < *kʷe (cf. Latin -{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Attic Greek {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} te), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'nor' < *ne-kʷe (cf. Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'also, as well' < *h₂et(i)-kʷe (cf. Lat. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Gaulish ate, OIr. aith 'again'), ve "or" (cf. Latin enclitic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and Attic Greek {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ē < Proto-Greek *ē-we). As in Welsh, there is an s-subjunctive, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "he shall take" (Old Irish gabid), robiseti, auseti. Compare Umbrian ferest "he/she/it shall make" or Ancient Greek {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (aorist subj.) / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (future ind.) "(that) he/she/it shall show".

PhonologyEdit

Template:More citations needed section

Celtiberian was a Celtic language that shows the characteristic sound changes of Celtic languages such as:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

PIE ConsonantsEdit

  • PIE *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ > b, d, g: Loss of Proto-Indo-European voiced aspiration.
    • Celtiberian and Gaulish placename element {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'hill, town, akro-polis' < *bʰr̥ǵʰ-eh₂;
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'they are watered' < *nebʰ-i-nt-or;
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'he must build' < *dʰingʰ-bī-tōd, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to build around > to enclose' < *h₂m̥bi-dʰingʰ-o-mn-ei (cf. Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to build, shape' < *dʰingʰ-o, Old Irish cunutgim 'erect, build up' < *kom-ups-dʰingʰ-o), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} '(that someone) builds around > enclose' < *h₂m̥bi-dʰingʰ-s-e-ti.
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'mandatory, required' < *gʰor-ti-ka (cfr. Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'exhort' < *ex-gʰor-to); though, as the meaning in Celtiberian cannot be determined with certainty, this root may be related to Old Irish gort "field" (<PIE: *ghо̄rdh-s, Gen. *ghrdh-os ‘enclosure, garden, pen") and its many Indo-European cognates.<ref>Matasovic, R. Etymological Dictionary Of Proto-Celtic Brill, 2009, pp. 264-265</ref>
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'daughter' < *dʰugh₂tēr, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'grandson, son of the daughter' (Common Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}});
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'mine' < *bʰedʰ-yo 'that is pierced'.
  • PIE *kʷ: Celtiberian preserved the PIE voiceless labiovelar (hence Q-Celtic), a development also observed in Archaic Irish and Latin. On the contrary Brythonic and Gaulish (P-Celtic—a change also seen in some dialects of Ancient Greek and some Italic branches like P-Italic) changed to p. -kue 'and' < *kʷe, Latin -que, Osco-Umbrian -pe 'and', neip 'and not, neither' < *ne-kʷe.
  • PIE *ḱw > ku: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} horse (in ethnic name ekualakos) < *h₁eḱw-ālo (cf. Middle Welsh ebawl 'foal' < *epālo, Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'horse', OIr. ech 'horse' < *eko´- < *h₁eḱwo-, OBret. eb < *epo- < *h₁eḱwo-);
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'dog' < *kuu < *kwōn, in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'hound-man, male hound/wolf, werewolf' (cfr. Old Irish Ferchú < *Virokū, Old Welsh Gurcí < *Virokū 'idem.'.<ref>Lambert, Pierre-Yves. "Francisco Villar, M.a Pilar Fernandez Álvarez, ed. Religión, lengua y cultura prerromanas de Hispania, Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2001 (Acta Salmanticensia, Estudios Filológicos, 283). = Actas del VIII Coloquio internacional sobre lenguas y culturas prerromanas de la Península Ibérica (11-14 mai 1999, Salamanque)". In: Etudes Celtiques, vol. 35, 2003. p. 393. [www.persee.fr/doc/ecelt_0373-1928_2003_num_35_1_2242_t1_0386_0000_2]</ref>
  • PIE *gʷ > b: bindis 'legal agent' < *gʷiHm-diks (cfr. Latin vindex 'defender');<ref>De Bernardo, P. "La gramática celtibérica del bronce de Botorrita. Nuevos Resultados". In Palaeohispanica 9 (2009), pp. 683-699.</ref>
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'cow passage' < *gʷow-(e)ito (cfr. OIr bòthar 'cow passage' < *gʷow-(e)itro),<ref>Schmidt, K. H. "How to define celtiberian archaims?". in Palaeohispanica 10 (2010), pp. 479-487.</ref> and boustom 'cowshed' < *gʷow-sto.
  • PIE *gʷʰ > gu: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *gʷʰedʰ-y-ont 'imploring, pleading'. Common Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'ask, plead, pray', OIr. guidid, W. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.
  • PIE *p > > : Loss of PIE *Template:PIE, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Celtiberian, Old Irish and Old Breton) vs. Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and Sanskrit Template:Transliteration. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} acc. pl. fem. 'six feet, unit of measure' (< *φodians < *pod-y-ans *sweks);
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'stone building' < *pl̥-ya (cfr. OIr. ail 'boulder');
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'higher' < *uφamos < *up-m̥os;
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'remainder, rest' < *uper-n̥tiyo (cfr. Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).
    • Toponym {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} now Ledaña 'broad place' < *pl̥th2-ny-a.

Final *-m is preserved in Celtiberian (and Lepontic), a further indication of these dialects' conservatism. It is generally fronted to -n in Gaulish (exceptional cases, for instance on the Larzac tablet, are probably due to influence from Latin): boustom "stable."<ref>Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p. 768 Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17</ref>

Consonant clustersEdit

  • PIE *mn > un: as in Lepontic, Brittonic and Gaulish, but not Old Irish and seemingly not Galatian. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'neighbour' < *kom-ness-o < *Kom-nedʰ-to (cf. OIr. comnessam 'neighbour' < *Kom-nedʰ-t-m̥o).
  • PIE *pn > un: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *kleun-y-a < *kleup-ni 'meadow' (Cfr. OIr. clúain 'meadow' < *klouni). However, in Latin *pn > mn: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'damage' < *dHp-no.
  • PIE *nm > lm: Only in Celtiberian. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *men-mōn 'intelligence', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'gifted with mind' < *men-mn̥-tyo (Cfr. OIr. menme 'mind' < *men-mn̥. Also occurs in modern Spanish: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'soul' < *anma < Lat. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Asturian galmu 'step' < Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.
  • PIE *ps > *ss / s: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'he must excavate (lit. up/over-dig)' < *ups-ad-bʰiH-tōd, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} * < *useziu < *ups-ed-yō 'highest'. The ethnic name {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in Latin (contesikum in native language), recall the proper name {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'warm-hearted, friendly' (< *kom-tep-so, cf. OIr. tess 'warm' > *tep-so). In Latin epigraphy that sound is transcribed with geminated: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'of the Usseitici' < *Usseito < *upse-tyo. However, in Gaulish and Brittonic *ps > *x (cf. Gaulish Uxama, MW. uchel, 'one six').
  • PIE *pt > *tt / t: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'seventh' (< *septmo-to). However, in Gaulish and Insular Celtic *pt > x: sextameto 'seventh', Old Irish sechtmad (< *septmo-e-to).
  • PIE *gs > *ks > *ss / s: sues 'six' < *sweks;
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'south/right city' (Celts oriented looking east) < *dekso-*bʰr̥ǵʰa; **{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'strength town' < *h₂ner-to-*bʰr̥ǵʰs;
    • es- 'out of, not' < *eks < *h₁eǵʰs (cf. Lat. ex-, Common Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, OIr. ess-). In Latin epigraphy that sound its transcript with geminated: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *sweks- 'the sixth city' (cfr. Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})<ref>De Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia 2009 "El nombre -¿céltico?- de la Pintia vaccea". BSAA Arqueología Nº. 75, (243-256).</ref>
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *deks-ika. However, in Gaulish *ks > *x: Dexivates.
  • PIE *gt > *kt > *tt / t: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'constructions, buildings' < *dʰigʰ-tas (= Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}});
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'load' < *louttu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu;
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'it is permitted', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'it is not permitted' (< *l(e)ik-to, cf. Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *lik-e-to). But Common Celtic *kt > *xt: luxtu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu, OIr. lucht.
    • Celtiberian {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'right born, lawful' < *h₃reg-tō-genos, Gaulish Rextugenos. In Latin epigraphy that sound is transcribed with geminated: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'noble' < *brikto < *bʰr̥ǵʰ-to.
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'fruitful' < *bruktio < *bʰruHǵ-t-y-o (cfr. Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'profitable').
  • PIE *st > *st: against Gaulish, Irish and Welsh, where the change was *st > ss. This preservation of the PIE cluster *st is another indication of the phonological conservatism of this dialect. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'excellent' < *{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'excellence' < *gus-tu. Old Irish gussu 'excellence' (cfr. Fergus < *viro-gussu), Gaulish gussu (Lezoux Plate, line 7).

VowelsEdit

  • PIE *e, *h₁e > e: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'in Togotis' < *h₁en-i (cf. Lat. in, OIr. in 'into, in'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'inside of this territory', es- 'out of, not' < *eks < *h₁eǵʰs (cf. Lat. ex-, Common Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, OIr. ess-), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'not enclosed, open' lit. 'unfenced' < *h₁eǵʰs-*h₂enk-yos, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'settlement, town', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'conventus, capital' < *kom-treb-ya (cf. OIr. treb, W. tref 'settlement'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} horse < *h₁ekw-os, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'horseman'.
  • PIE *h₂e > a: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'fenced, enclosed' < *h₂enk-yos, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'strong' < *h₂ep-lō 'strength', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'valid, firm' < *h₂ewg-u, adj. 'strong, firm, valid'.
  • PIE *o, *Ho > o: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (dat.sing.) 'for the last' (< *olzo 'last' < *h₂ol-tyo, cf. Lat. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *h₂ol-t-m̥o. OIr. ollam 'master poet' < *oltamo < *h₂ol-t-m̥), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'mountain' (< *h₂ok-r-i, cf. Lat. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'mountain', OIr. ochair 'edge' < *h₂ok-r-i), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'memory' (< *monī-mā < *mon-eye-mā).
  • PIE *eh₁ > ē > ī?. This Celtic reflex isn't well attested in Celtiberian. e.g. IE *h3rTemplate:PIEg'-s meaning "king, ruler" vs. Celtiberian -reiKis, Gaulish -rix, British rix, Old Irish, Old Welsh, Old Breton ri meaning "king". In any case, the maintenance of PIE ē = ē is well attested in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'he did' < *deked < *dʰeh₁k-et, identical to Latin fecit.
  • PIE *eh₂ > ā: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to burn' < *deh₂u-nei (Old Irish dóud, dód 'burn' < *deh₂u-to-), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'enough money, a considerable amount of money' (< *sātio < *seh₂t-yo, Common Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'sufficiency', OIr. sáith), kār 'friendship' (< *keh₂r, cf. Lat. cārus 'dear' < *keh₂r-os, Irish cara 'friend', W. caru 'love' < *kh₂r-os).
  • PIE *eh₃, *oH > a/u: Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in final syllables and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in non-final syllables, e.g. IE *dh3-tTemplate:PIEd to Celtiberian {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} meaning 'he must give'. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'sentence' < *dʰoh₁m-eh₂ 'put, dispose' (cfr. Old Irish dán 'gift, skill, poem', Germanic dōma < *dʰoh₁m-o 'verdict, sentence').
  • PIE *Hw- > w-: uta 'conj. and, prep. besides' (< *h₂w-ta, 'or, and', cfr, Umb. ute 'or', Lat. aut 'or' (< *h₂ew-ti).
  • PIE ey remains ey in Celtiberian and Lepontic (teiuo- < *dēywo-), but in other Celtic languages, it becomes ē (apparently, another indication of the conservatism of Celtiberian, unless these spellings indicate a high /e/ rather than an actual diphthong).<ref>Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p753. Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17</ref>

Syllabic resonants and laryngealsEdit

  • PIE *n̥ > an / *m̥ > am: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'silver' < *h₂r̥gn̥to (cf. OIr. argat and Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'path, way' *kanmano < *kn̥gs-mn̥-o (cf. OIr. céimm, OW. cemmein 'step'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'tithe' < *dekm̥-et-a (cf. Gaulish decametos 'tenth', Old Irish dechmad 'tenth'), dekam 'ten' (cf. Lat. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Common Celtic dekam, OIr. deich < *dekm̥), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'the nine tribes', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'nine' < *h₁newn̥ (cf. Lat. novem, Common Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, OW. nauou < *h₁newn̥), ās 'we, us' (< *ans < *n̥s, Old Irish sinni < *sisni, *snisni 'we, us', cf. German uns < *n̥s), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *tri-kn̥g-ta, lit. 'three horns, three boundaries' > 'civil parish, shire' (modern Spanish Tres Cantos).
  • Like Common Celtic and Italic (SCHRIJVER 1991: 415, McCONE 1996: 51 and SCHUMACHER 2004: 135), PIE *CHC > CaC (C = any consonant, H = any laryngeal): {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *dh₃-tōd, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'they put' < *dʰh₁k-ont, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'propitious days' < *mh₂-tu (Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'good' < *meh₂-no, Old Irish maith 'good' < *mh₂-ti).
  • PIE *CCH > CaC (C = any consonant, H = any laryngeal): {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'prince' (< *mgh₂-i-lo, cf. OIr. mál 'prince' < *mgh₂-lo).
  • PIE *r̥R > arR and *l̥R > alR (R = resonant): {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'part, share' < *φarsna < *parsna < *pr̥s-nh₂. Common Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *prasna < *pr̥s-nh₂, cf. Old Irish ernáil 'part, share'.
  • PIE *r̥P > riP and *l̥P > liP (P = plosive): {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} PiRiKanTi < *bʰr̥ǵʰ-n̥ti. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'silver coined' < *kom-skl̥-to 'to cut'.
  • PIE *Cr̥HV > CarV and *Cl̥HV > CalV: sailo 'dung, slurry' *salyo < *sl̥H-yo (cf. Lat. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *sl̥H-iwa, OIr. sal 'dirt' < *sl̥H-a), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'stone building' < *pl̥-ya (cf. OIr. ail 'boulder'), are- 'first, before' (Old Irish ar 'for', Gaulish are 'in front of', < *pr̥h₂i. Lat. prae- 'before' < *preh₂i).
  • Like Common Celtic (JOSEPH 1982: 51 and ZAIR 2012: 37), PIE *HR̥C > aRC (H = any laringeal, R̥ any syllabic resonant, C = any consonant): {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'silver' < *h₂r̥gn̥to, not **riganto.

Exclusive developmentsEdit

  • Affrication of the PIE groups -*dy-, -*dʰy-. -*ty- > z/th (/θ/) located between vowels and of -*d, -*dʰ > z/th (/θ/) at the end of the word: adiza 'duty' < *adittia < *h₂ed-d(e)ik-t-ya; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'highest' < *ups-ed-yō; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'territory' < *teut-yō; rouzu 'red' < *reudʰy-ō; olzo 'last' < *h₂ol-tyo; ozas 'feet' < *pod-y-ans; datuz < *dh₃-tōd; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'free' (in: LOUZOKUM, MLH IV, K.1.1.) < *h₁leudʰy-ō (cf. Oscan loufir 'free man', Russian ljúdi 'men, people'. That this is one of only a very few phonological developments that distinguishes Celtiberian phonologically from Proto-Celtic is one of the reasons Matasovic has concluded that Celtiberian is a very early independent branch of Proto-Celtic.<ref>Ranko Matasovic 2009 Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic Leiden: Brill, 2009, p.17 https://archive.org/stream/EtymologicalDictionaryOfProtoCeltic/Etymological%20Dictionary%20of%20Proto-Celtic_djvu.txt</ref> It is noteworthy that this weakening of most non-initial Proto-Celtic voiced dental stops (ds) seems to indicate that Celtiberian had taken the first step in what became more widespread lenition of non-initial (and in some cases even initial) voiced consonants in later Celtic dialects.<ref>Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p.763 Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17</ref>

MorphologyEdit

Noun and adjective casesEdit

  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'part, share' < *parsna < *pr̥s-nh₂. Common Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *parsna
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'witness' < *weidʰ-yo < *weidʰ- 'perceive, see' / vamos 'higher' < *up-m̥os
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'son, descendance' < *gen-ti. Common Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'family'
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'load' < *louttu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu. Common Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu (oir. lucht).
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'daughter' < *dʰugh₂tēr. Common Celtic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.
Case Singular   Plural
ā-stem o-stem i-stem u-stem r-stem ā-stem o-stem i-stem u-stem r-stem
Nominative *arznā *veizos / *vamos (n. *-om) *gentis *loutus duater *arznās / *arznī *veizoi (n *-a) *gentis *loutoves *duateres
Accusative *arznām *veizom *gentim *loutum *duaterem *arznās < -*ams *veizus < *-ōs < -*oms *gentīs < -*ims *loutūs < -*ums *duaterēs < -*ems
Genitive *arznās *veizo *gentes<ref>Gorrochategui, Joaquín 1991 "Descripción y posición lingiiistica del celtibérico" in "Memoriae L. Mitxelena magistri sacrum vol I (3-32)". Ed. Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea</ref> ? *duateros *arznaum *veizum < *weidʰ-y-ōm *gentizum < *isōm *loutoum < *ewōm ?
Dative *arznāi *veizūi < *weidʰ-y-ōi *gentei *loutuei<ref>Beltrán Lloris, F. Jordán Cólera, C. Marco Simón, F. 2005 "Novedades epigráficas en Peñalba de Villastar (Teruel)". Palaeohispánica: Revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania antigua Nº. 5, 911-956: ENIOROSEI Dat. sg. de un tema en -i. LVGVEI, Dat. sg. de un tema en -u. ERECAIAS, Gen .sg. de un tema en -a, TIASO, Gen. sg. de un tema en -o</ref> ? ? *veizubos ? ? ?
Ablative *arznaz<ref>Villar Liébana, F. 1996 "Fonética y Morfología Celtibéricas". La Hispania prerromana : actas del VI Coloquio sobre lenguas y culturas prerromanas de la Península Ibérica (339-378): 1) filiación expresada mediante genitivo y cuya desinencia es -as < (*-ās) y 2) origen que se expresa mediante ablativo, cuya desinencia es -az < (*-ād)</ref> *veizuz < *weidʰ-y-ōd / *vamuz < *up-m̥ōd *gentiz *loutuez *duaterez < -*ed ? *veizubos ? ? ?
Locative *arznai *veizei *gentei ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

<ref>Wodtko, Dagmar S. "An outline of Celtiberian grammar" 2003</ref><ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

An -n- stem can be seen in melmu nom.sg. < *-ōn, melmunos gen. sg. (from Botorrita III, probably a name).

It is notable that the genitive singular -o- stem ends in -o in Celtiberian, unlike the rest of Celtic (and Italic) where this ending is -ī <ref name="10.36707_palaeohispanica.v0i20.395">Francisco Beltrán Lloris and Carlos Jordán Cólera (2020) "Celtiberian" PALAEOHISPANICA: revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania antigua pp. 631-690. I.S.S.N. 1578-5386 {{#invoke:doi|main}}</ref><ref>Untermann, J. (1967). "Die Endung des Genitiv singularis der o-Stämme im Keltiberischen." In W. Meid (ed.), Beiträge zur Indogermanistik und Keltologie, Julius Pokorny zum 80. Geburtstag gewidmet, pp. 281-288. Innsbruck: Sprachwissenschaftliches Institut der Universität Innsbruck.</ref>

There is also a potential Vocative case, however this is very poorly attested, with only an ambiguous -e ending for o-stem nouns being cited in literature.

Demonstrative pronounsEdit

Case Singular   Plural
masculine feminine neuter masculine feminine neuter
Nominative *so: so viros 'this man' *sa: sa duater 'this daughter' *soz: soz bezom < *so-d *bʰedʰ-yom 'this mine'. *sos < *so-s ? *sas < *sa-s ? *soizos < so-syos < *so-sy-os ?
Accusative *som: 'to this' *sam: 'to this' *sozom < *so-sy-om? *sus < *sōs < *so-ms *sās < *sa-ms *soizus < so-syōs < *so-sy-oms ??
Genitive ? ? ? soum < *so-ōm 'of these' saum < *sa-ōm 'of these' soizum < *so-sy-ōm 'of these'
Dative somui < *so-sm-ōi 'for this' somai < *so-sm-ai 'for this' ? ? ? ?
Locative somei < *so-sm-ei 'from this' samei < *sa-sm-ei 'from this' ? ? ? ?

<ref>Jordán Cólera, Carlos "La forma verbal cabint del bronce celtibérico de Novallas". En Emerita, Revista de Lingüística y Filología Clásica LXXXII 2, 2014, pp. 327-343</ref>

Relative pronounEdit

Forms of the masculine singular relative pronoun *yo- can be found in the first Botorrita plaque: The form io-s in line 10 is the nominative singular masculine of the relative pronoun from Proto-Indo-European *yo- (Sanskrit ya-, Greek hos), which shows up in Old Irish only as the aspirationTemplate:Clarify for leniting relative verb forms. Line 7 has the accusative singular io-m and the dative singular io-mui of the same root.<ref>Matasovic, R. Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Leiden: Brill. 2006. p. 436</ref>

Verbal endingsEdit

The Indo-European third person verbal ending system seems to be evident, though the exact meaning of many verbs remains unclear: primary singular active *-ti in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Botorrita I, A.5), '(that someone) builds around > encloses' from *h₂m̥bhi-dʰingʰ-s-e-ti, and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, secondary *-t > /θ/ written <z> in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (SP.02.08, B-4) and perhaps {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; primary plural active *-nti in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Z.09.24, A-4) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "they sow" (or perhaps "they give" with assimilation of the initial do the medial <z>),<ref name="ffzg_EDPC-Addenda">Addenda et corrigenda to Ranko Matasović’s Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (Brill, Leiden 2009) Zagreb, December 2011, p.10. https://mudrac.ffzg.hr/~rmatasov/EDPC-Addenda%20et%20corrigenda.pdf</ref> secondary *-nt perhaps in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Z.09.24, A-5), middle voice *-nto in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Z.09.03, 01) and perhaps {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (SP.02.08 A-2).<ref name="Avdintvm">Jordán Cólera, Carlos. "Avdintvm, una nueva forma verbal en celtibérico y sus posibles relaciones paradigmáticas (auzeti, auzanto, auz, auzimei, auzares...)" Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Cuadernos de filología clásica. Estudios griegos e indoeuropeos, 2015-05, Vol.25 (25), pp.11-23</ref>

A third person imperative *-tо̄d > -tuz perhaps is seen in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "he must give" (Bronze plaque of Torrijo del Campo), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Botorrita I A.5) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'he must build' < *dʰingʰ-bī-tōd.

A possible third person singular subjunctive -a-ti may be {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and another in -e-ti may be seen in auzeti < *aw-dhh1-e-ti "he may bestow."<ref name="Avdintvm"/>

From the same root, we may have a truncated form of an athematic active third person singular aorist if auz is from *auzaz < *aw-dh h1-t.<ref name="Avdintvm"/>

Also from the same root, an example of the genitive plural of the present active participle ending -nt-om may be found on the Novallas bronze tablet in audintum < *awdheh1-nt-ōm.<ref name="Avdintvm"/>

Possible infinitive form -u-nei perhaps from *-mn-ei may be seen in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Botorrita I A.5), and in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ‘to give’,<ref name="ffzg_EDPC-Addenda"/><ref name="10.36707_palaeohispanica.v0i20.395"/> a reduplicated infinitive form in ti-za-unei if from *dhi-dhh1-mn-ei "to place."<ref>Prosper, Blanca María. "Some Thoughts on the Gaulish Result of Common Celtic -mn- in Galatian" Celtic Studies 3. 2008. pp. 189-199, p. 190</ref>

SyntaxEdit

Celtiberian syntax is considered to have the basic order subject–object–verb.<ref>2000. Fife J. 2000. Historical Aspects. In: The Celtic Languages. Ed. by Martin j. Ball. with James Fife. Routledge. P.74</ref> Another archaic Indo-European feature is the use of the relative pronoun jos and the repetition of enclitised conjunctions such as kwe.

Sample textsEdit

First Botorrita plaque, side AEdit

One of four bronze plaques found in Botorrita, this text was written in eastern Celtiberian script. The other side consists of a list of names. (K.01.01.A) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref name="Prosper2006">Template:Cite journal</ref>
all this (is) valid by order of the competent authority
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: all this (< *sod).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: final, valid (< *h₂eug-os 'strong, valid', cf. Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'solemn').
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: of the competent authority (gen. sing. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *pr̥Hi-steh₂-lo 'competent authority' < *pr̥Hi-sto 'what is first, authority').
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: by order (instrumental fem. sing. < *dʰoh₁m-eh₂ 'establish, dispose').
(Translation: Prospér 2006)
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref name="Jordan2004">Template:Cite journal</ref>
of these, he will give the tax inside of this territory, so be fenced as be unfenced
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: of these (< *sa-ōm).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: the tithes, the tax.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: he will pay, will give.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: inside, in (< *h₁en-i).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: of this (loc. sing. < *so-sm-ei 'from this').
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: territory (loc. sing. < *touzom 'territory' < *tewt-yo).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: so (be) fenced.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: as (be) unfenced.
(Transcription: Jordán 2004)
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
In Togotis, he who draws water either for the green or for the farmland, the tithe (of their yield) he shall give
(Translation: De Bernardo 2007)

Great inscription from Peñalba de VillastarEdit

An inscription in the Latin alphabet in the Celtiberian sanctuary of Peñalba de Villastar, in the current municipality of Villastar, Teruel province. (K.03.03) Other translations, which differ dramatically from this and from each other, may be found in P. Sims-Williams' treatment of the Celtic languages in The Indo-European Languages.<ref>Kapović, M. (editor) The Indo-European Languages Routledge: 2017. p. 360 https://archive.org/stream/MateKapoviTheIndoEuropeanLanguages/Mate%20Kapovi%C4%87%20The%20Indo-European%20Languages_djvu.txt</ref>

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
In Orosis and the surroundings of Tigino river, we dedicate the fields to Lugus.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: in (< *h₁en-i).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: Orosis (loc. sing. *oros-ei).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: and (conj. cop.).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: of Tigino (river) (gen. sing. *tigin-o).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: in the surroundings (loc. sing. *tiatoun-ei < *to-yh₂eto-mn-ei).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: the furrows > the land cultivated (acc. pl. fem. erekaiās < *perka-i-ans > English furrow).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: to Lugus.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: properly, totally, (may be a verbal complement > *pare-yanom, cfr. welsh iawn).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: we dedicate (present 3 p.pl. komeimu < *komeimuz < *kom-ei-mos-i).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
In Orosis and Equeiso the hills, the vegetable gardens [and] the houses are dedicated to Lugus.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: in Ekuoisu (loc. sing.) -kue: and (< *-kʷe).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: the hills (nom. pl. < *h₂ok-r-eyes).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: the vegetable gardens (nom. pl. olokas < *olkās < *polk-eh₂-s > English fallow).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: (and) the roofs > houses (nom. pl. or gen. sg. togias < tog-ya-s > Old Irish tuige "cover, protection").<ref>Matasovic, R. Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic Leiden: Brill. 2009. p. 376</ref>
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: are they (dedicated) (3 p.pl. < *sistant < *si-sth₂-nti).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: to Lug (dat. Lugue-i).
(Transcription: Meid 1994, Translation: Prósper 2002<ref name="Prosper2002">

Prósper, Blanca M. 2002: «La gran inscripción rupestre celtibérica de Peñalba de Villastar. Una nueva interpretación», Palaeohispanica 2, pp. 213–226.</ref>)

Bronze plaque of Torrijo del CampoEdit

A bronze plaque found in Torrijo del Campo, Teruel province in 1996, using the eastern Celtiberian script.

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
for those of the Lutorici included in the duty, and also of the Cartinoci, of the Lancici and of the Tritoci, must give enough money to settle the debt with them.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: of the Lutorici ( gen. masc. pl.).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: for those included ( < *h1epi-s-o-bʰos).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: in the assignment, in the duty (loc. fem. sing. < *adittia < *ad-dik-tia. Cfr. Latin addictio 'assignment').
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: and also (< *h₂et(i)kʷe).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: of the Cartinoci ( gen. masc. pl.).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: of the Lancici ( gen. masc. pl.).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: of the Tritoci ( gen. masc. pl.).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: money.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: enough (< *sātio < *seh₂t-yo).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: for them (dat.3 p.pl. ibus < *i-bʰos).
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: to settle the debt (< *essato < *eks-h₂eg-to. Cfr. Latin ex-igo 'demand, require' & exactum 'identical, equivalent').
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: must give (< *dh₃-tōd).
(Transcription and Translation: Prósper 2015)

See alsoEdit

ReferencesEdit

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SourcesEdit

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  • Template:Cite journal
  • Anderson, James M. "Preroman indo-european languages of the hispanic peninsula" . In: Revue des Études Anciennes. Tome 87, 1985, n°3-4. pp. 319–326. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/rea.1985.4212]; [www.persee.fr/doc/rea_0035-2004_1985_num_87_3_4212]
  • Hoz, Javier de. "Lepontic, Celtiberian, Gaulish and the archaeological evidence". In: Etudes Celtiques. vol. 29, 1992. Actes du IXe congrès international d'études celtiques. Paris, 7-12 juillet 1991. Deuxième partie : Linguistique, littératures. pp. 223–240. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.1992.2006
  • Hoz, Javier de. (1996). The Botorrita first text. Its epigraphical background; in: Die größeren altkeltischen Sprachdenkmäler. Akten des Kolloquiums Innsbruck 29. April - 3. Mai 1993, ed. W. Meid and P. Anreiter, 124–145, Innsbruck.
  • Jordán Cólera, Carlos: (2004). Celtibérico. [1]. University of Zaragoza, Spain.
  • Joseph, Lionel S. (1982): The Treatment of *CRH- and the Origin of CaRa- in Celtic. Ériu n. 33 (31-57). Dublín. RIA.
  • Lejeune, Michel (1955) Celtiberica Acta Salmanticensia: Filosofia y Letras, vol. 7, #4. Salamanca. Universidad de Salamanca.
  • Lorrio, Alberto J. "Les Celtibères: archéologie et culture". In: Etudes Celtiques. vol. 33, 1997. pp. 7–36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.1997.2109
  • Luján, Eugenio R. "Celtic and Celtiberian in the Iberian peninsula". In: E. Blasco et al. (eds.). Iberia e Sardegna. Le Monnier Universitá. 2013. pp. 97–112. Template:ISBN
  • Luján, Eugenio R.; Lorrio, Alberto J. "Un puñal celtibérico con inscripción procedente de Almaraz (Cáceres, España)". In: Etudes Celtiques, vol. 43, 2017. pp. 113–126. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.2017.1096
  • McCone, Kim.(1996): Towards a relative chronology of ancient and medieval Celtic sound change Maynooth Studies in Celtic Linguistics 1. Maynooth. St. Patrick's College.
  • Meid, Wolfgang. (1994). Celtiberian Inscriptions, Archaeolingua, edd. S. Bökönyi and W. Meid, Series Minor, 5, 12–13. Budapest.
  • Schrijver, Peter (1991): The reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European laryngeals in Latin. Amsterdam. Ed. Rodopi.
  • Schumacher, Stefan (2004): Die keltischen Primärverben: ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft vol. 110. Universität Innsbruck.
  • Untermann, Jürgen. (1997): Monumenta Linguarum Hispanicarum. IV Die tartessischen, keltiberischen und lusitanischen Inschriften, Wiesbaden.
  • Velaza, Javier (1999): Balance actual de la onomástica personal celtibérica, Pueblos, lenguas y escrituras en la Hispania Prerromana, pp. 663–683.
  • Villar, Francisco (1995): Estudios de celtibérico y de toponimia prerromana, Salamanca.
  • Zair, Nicholas. (2012): The Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Celtic. Leiden. Ed. Brill.

Further readingEdit

Overview
Lexicon
Alphabet

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External linksEdit

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