Corinth Canal
Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox Canal
The Corinth Canal (Template:Langx) is a canal in Greece that connects the Gulf of Corinth in the Ionian Sea with the Saronic Gulf in the Aegean Sea. Completed in 1893, it cuts through the narrow Isthmus of Corinth and "separates" the Peloponnese peninsula from the rest of the Greek mainland. The canal was dug through the Isthmus at sea level and has no locks. It is Template:Convert in length and at 24.6 metres (80.7 feet) wide at sea level is impassable for many modern ships. It is currently of little economic importance and is mainly a tourist attraction.
The Corinth canal concept originated with Periander of Corinth in the 7th century BC. Daunted by its enormity, he chose to implement the Diolkos, a land trackway for transporting ships, instead.<ref name="Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993), 256" /><ref name="Werner, Walter, 1997, 114" /> Construction of a canal finally began under Roman Emperor Nero in 67 AD, using Jewish prisoners captured during the First Jewish–Roman War. However, the project ceased shortly after his death.<ref name="Nero" /><ref name="gerster" /> In subsequent centuries, the idea intrigued figures like Herodes Atticus in the second century and, following their conquest of the Peloponnese in 1687, the Venetians. Despite their interest, neither of them undertook the construction.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />
Construction finally recommenced in 1881 but was hampered by geological and financial problems that bankrupted the original builders. It was completed two years later, but, due to the canal's narrowness, navigational problems, and periodic closures to repair landslides from its steep walls, it failed to attract the level of traffic expected by its operators.
HistoryEdit
Ancient attemptsEdit
Several rulers of antiquity dreamed of digging a cutting through the isthmus. The first to propose such an undertaking was the tyrant Periander in the 7th century BC. The project was abandoned and Periander instead constructed a simpler and less costly overland portage road, named the Diolkos or stone carriageway, along which ships could be towed from one side of the isthmus to the other.<ref name="Verdelis, Nikolaos (1957), 526">Verdelis, Nikolaos: "Le diolkos de L'Isthme", Template:Ill, Vol. 81 (1957), pp. 526–529 (526)</ref><ref name="Cook, R. M. (1979), 152">Cook, R. M.: "Archaic Greek Trade: Three Conjectures 1. The Diolkos", Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 99 (1979), pp. 152–155 (152)</ref><ref name="Drijvers, J.W. (1992), 75">Drijvers, J.W.: "Strabo VIII 2,1 (C335): Porthmeia and the Diolkos", Mnemosyne, Vol. 45 (1992), pp. 75–76 (75)</ref><ref name="Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993), 256">Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M.: "Le Diolkos de l’Isthme à Corinthe: son tracé, son fonctionnement", Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, Vol. 117 (1993), pp. 233–261 (256)</ref><ref name="Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), 11">Lewis, M. J. T., "Railways in the Greek and Roman world" Template:Webarchive, in Guy, A. / Rees, J. (eds), Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference (2001), pp. 8–19 (11)</ref> Periander's change of heart is attributed variously to the great expense of the project, a lack of labour or a fear that a canal would have robbed Corinth of its dominant role as an entrepôt for goods.<ref name="Werner, Walter, 1997, 114">Werner, Walter: "The largest ship trackway in ancient times: the Diolkos of the Isthmus of Corinth, Greece, and early attempts to build a canal", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 26, No. 2 (1997), pp. 98–119</ref> Remnants of the Diolkos still exist next to the modern canal.<ref name="Werner, Walter, 1997, 114" /><ref>Verdelis, Nikolaos: "Le diolkos de L'Isthme", Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique (1957, 1958, 1960, 1961, 1963)</ref><ref>Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M.: "Le Diolkos de l’Isthme à Corinthe: son tracé, son fonctionnement", Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, Vol. 117 (1993), pp. 233–261</ref>
The Diadoch Demetrius Poliorcetes (336–283 BC) planned to construct a canal as a means to improve his communication lines, but dropped the plan after his surveyors, miscalculating the levels of the adjacent seas, feared heavy floods.<ref name="Werner, Walter, 1997, 114" /><ref name=gerster>Gerster, Béla, "L'Isthme de Corinthe: tentatives de percement dans l'antiquité", Bulletin de correspondance hellénique (1884), Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 225–232 (in French)</ref>
The philosopher Apollonius of Tyana prophesied that anyone who proposed to dig a Corinthian canal would be met with illness. Three Roman rulers considered the idea but all suffered violent deaths; the historians Plutarch and Suetonius both wrote that the Roman dictator Julius Caesar considered digging a canal through the isthmus but was assassinated before he could begin the project.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Suetonius, "Lives of the Caesars: Julius Caesar", 44.3</ref> Caligula, the third Roman Emperor, commissioned a study in 40 AD from Egyptian experts who claimed incorrectly that the Corinthian Gulf was higher than the Saronic Gulf. As a result, they concluded, if a canal were dug the island of Aegina would be inundated. Caligula's interest in the idea got no further as he too was assassinated before making any progress.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The emperor Nero was the first to attempt to construct the canal, personally breaking the ground with a pickaxe and removing the first basket-load of soil in 67 AD,<ref name="Nero">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> but the project was abandoned when he died shortly afterwards. The Roman workforce, consisting of 6,000 Judean prisoners of war, started digging Template:Convert trenches from both sides, while a third group at the ridge drilled deep shafts for probing the quality of the rock (which were reused in 1881 for the same purpose).<ref name="gerster" /> According to Suetonius, the canal was dug to a distance of four stades – approximately Template:Convert – or about a tenth of the total distance across the isthmus. A memorial of the attempt in the form of a relief of Hercules was left by Nero's workers and can still be seen in the canal cutting today.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Other than this, as the modern canal follows the same course as Nero's, no remains have survived.<ref name="Werner, Walter, 1997, 114" />
The Greek philosopher and Roman senator Herodes Atticus is known to have considered digging a canal in the 2nd century AD, but did not get a project under way.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> The Venetians also considered it in 1687 after their conquest of the Peloponnese but likewise did not initiate any work on the ground.<ref name=":2">Template:Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century</ref>
Construction of the modern canalEdit
The idea of a canal was revived after Greece gained formal independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1830. The Greek statesman Ioannis Kapodistrias asked a French engineer to assess the feasibility of the project but had to abandon it when its cost was assessed at 40 million gold francs—far too expensive for the newly independent country. Fresh impetus was given by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and, the following year, the government of Prime Minister Thrasyvoulos Zaimis passed a law authorizing the construction of a Corinth canal. French entrepreneurs were put in charge but, following the bankruptcy of the French company that had attempted to dig the Panama Canal, French banks refused to lend money, and the company went bankrupt as well. A fresh concession was granted to the Société Internationale du Canal Maritime de Corinthe in 1881, which was commissioned to construct the canal and operate it for the next 99 years. Construction was formally inaugurated on 23 April 1882 in the presence of King George I of Greece.<ref name="Countdown">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The company's initial capital was 30,000,000 francs (US$6.0 million in the money of the day), but after eight years of work, it ran out of money, and a bid to issue 60,000 bonds of 500 francs each flopped when less than half of the bonds were sold. The company's head, István Türr, went bankrupt, as did the company itself and a bank that had agreed to raise additional funds for the project.<ref name="Johnson">Template:Cite book</ref> Construction resumed in 1890, when the project was transferred to a Greek company, and was completed on 25 July 1893 after eleven years' work.<ref name="Countdown" />
After completionEdit
The canal experienced financial and operational difficulties after completion. The narrowness of the canal makes navigation difficult. Its high walls funnel wind along its length, and the different times of the tides in the two gulfs cause strong tidal currents in the channel. For these reasons, many ship operators were unwilling to use the canal, and traffic was far below predictions. Annual traffic of just under 4 million net tons had been anticipated, but by 1906 traffic had reached only half a million net tons annually. By 1913, the total had risen to 1.5 million net tons, but the disruption caused by World War I resulted in a major decline in traffic.<ref name="Johnson" />
Another persistent problem was the heavily faulted nature of the sedimentary rock, in an active seismic zone, through which the canal is cut.<ref>"Geology and Ancient Culture Along the Corinth Canal Template:Webarchive"</ref> The canal's high limestone walls have been persistently unstable from the start. Although it was formally opened in July 1893 it was not opened to navigation until the following November, due to landslides. It was soon found that the wake from ships passing through the canal undermined the walls, causing further landslides. This required further expense in building retaining walls along the water's edge for more than half of the length of the canal, using 165,000 cubic metres of masonry.<ref>"Corinth Canal". Johnson's Universal Cyclopedia: A New Edition, Vol. 7, p. 484. A.J. Johnson & Co., 1895</ref> Between 1893 and 1940, it was closed for a total of four years for maintenance to stabilise the walls. In 1923 alone, 41,000 cubic metres of material fell into the canal, which took two years to clear out.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Serious damage was caused to the canal during World War II. On 26 April 1941, during the Battle of Greece between defending Allied troops and the invading forces of Nazi Germany, German parachutists and glider troops attempted to capture the main bridge over the canal. The bridge was defended by British and Anzac forces<ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and had been wired for demolition. The Germans surprised the defenders with a glider-borne assault in the early morning of 26 April and captured the bridge, but the British set off the charges and destroyed the structure.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Other authors maintain that German pioneers cut the detonation wires, and a lucky hit by British artillery triggered the explosion,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> or that they were set off by a rifle shot from one of the British sappers.<ref name=":0" /> The bridge was replaced by a combined rail/road bridge built in 25 days by the IV Ferrovieri Battalion of the Royal Italian Army's Ferrovieri Engineer Regiment.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Following the Axis occupation of Greece the Allies made several attempts to block the canal but without success.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In October 1944, as German forces retreated from Greece, the canal was put out of action by German "scorched earth" operations. German forces used explosives to trigger landslides to block the canal, destroyed the bridges and dumped locomotives, bridge wreckage and other infrastructure into the canal to hinder repairs. The United States Army Corps of Engineers began to clear the canal in November 1947 and reopened it for shallow-draft traffic by 7 July 1948, and for all traffic by that September.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Modern useEdit
Because the canal is difficult to navigate for large vessels, it is mostly used by smaller recreational boats. A notable exception occurred on 9 October 2019, when the cruise ship MS Braemar became the widest and longest ship to transit the canal.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The canal closed at the beginning of 2021 after a landslide.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It re-opened in June 2022 until October 2022. After further safety measures, the canal reopened on June 1, 2023.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
LayoutEdit
The sea level canal consists of a single lock-free Template:Convert channel excavated Template:Convert deep, Template:Convert in breadth at the surface and Template:Convert wide at the bottom. The rock walls, which rise Template:Convert above sea level, are at a near-vertical 80° angle.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The canal is crossed by a railway line, a road and a motorway at a height of about Template:Convert. In 1988, submersible bridges were installed at sea level at each end of the canal, by the eastern harbour of Isthmia and the western harbour of Poseidonia, providing two additional crossings for road traffic.<ref name="Goette">Template:Cite book</ref>
The canal saves a Template:Convert journey around the Peloponnese for transiting vessels. It is too narrow and shallow for large, deep drafted oceangoing vessels, accommodating a maximum of Template:Convert in width and Template:Convert in draft. In October 2019, the Template:Convert wide, Template:Convert long 900-passenger Braemar cruise ship successfully set a new record for longest ship to pass through the canal.Template:Cn
Ships can pass through the canal only one convoy at a time on a one-way system. Larger ships have to be towed by tugs.<ref name="Goette" /> The canal is currently used mainly by tourist ships; around 11,000 ships per year travel through the waterway.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- Kanal-Korinth-2011.jpg
Aerial photograph of the Corinth Canal area (2011)
- BridgeSubmerging4.jpg
A submersible bridge at the entrance to the Corinth Canal