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Rockstar North (Rockstar Games UK Limited; formerly DMA Design Limited) is a British video game developer and a studio of Rockstar Games based in Edinburgh. The studio is best known for creating the Lemmings and Grand Theft Auto series, including Grand Theft Auto V, the second-best-selling game and most profitable entertainment product of all time.
David Jones founded the company as DMA Design in 1988 in his hometown of Dundee. During his studies, he had developed the game Menace and struck a six-game publishing deal with Psygnosis, which released Jones's project in October 1988. While making its sequel, Blood Money, Jones dropped out, hired several of his friends, including Mike Dailly, Steve Hammond, and Russell Kay, with whom he had attended the Kingsway Amateur Computer Club. They opened the company's first offices above a former fish and chip shop in 1989. Following the successful 1991 release of Lemmings, the studio rapidly expanded and moved into proper offices, after which Kay left to establish Visual Sciences. Several Lemmings expansions and sequels later, 1994's All New World of Lemmings was DMA Design's final game in the series and its last with Psygnosis.
After many halted projects from partnerships with Nintendo and BMG Interactive, Jones sold the financially stricken studio to Gremlin Interactive in April 1997. The subsequent spin-off of DMA Design's American satellite studio triggered Hammond's departure. While the commercially successful release of Grand Theft Auto led Take-Two Interactive to buy the game's intellectual property and form Rockstar Games in 1998, Body HarvestTemplate:'s underperformance later that year saw Gremlin Interactive being taken over by Infogrames. In September 1999, Infogrames sold DMA Design to Take-Two, enabling a close collaboration with Rockstar Games to release Grand Theft Auto 2. Amid these changes, Dailly left for Visual Sciences, while Jones founded Denki and Real Time Worlds.
A few months after an Edinburgh branch was established for DMA Design, the prior Dundee location was closed. Grand Theft Auto III, the first Grand Theft Auto game presented fully in 3D, was released in 2001 and sold 6 million units in one year. Considered genre-defining, the game gave rise to a number of Grand Theft Auto clones. Take-Two integrated DMA Design with Rockstar Games as Rockstar Studios in March 2002, which was renamed Rockstar North in May. Since then, the studio has continued the Grand Theft Auto series with Grand Theft Auto: Vice City (2002), Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas (2004), Grand Theft Auto IV (2008), and Grand Theft Auto V (2013), as well as a number of smaller games in the franchise. Rockstar North also created Manhunt in 2003 and collaborated with other Rockstar Games studios on Manhunt 2 (2007), Red Dead Redemption (2010), L.A. Noire (2011), Max Payne 3 (2012), and Red Dead Redemption 2 (2018).
HistoryEdit
Background and formation (1983–1988)Edit
Rockstar North was founded as DMA Design by the Dundee native David Jones. Having frequently played Space Invaders in his youth, he gained early programming knowledge when his secondary school, Linlathen High, obtained an Apple II computer and piloted O-level qualifications in computer studies.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="The Great British Dream Factory" /> In 1983, he took up an apprenticeship at the local plant of the electronics manufacturer Timex. Although the company was best known for producing watches, the Dundee factory also built home computers for Sinclair Research, including the ZX81 and ZX Spectrum, which had boosted interest in hobbyist programming in the area.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="The Herald: play for the future" /> Timex paid for programming courses at the local Kingsway Technical College, which also hosted the Kingsway Amateur Computer Club (KACC).<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="The Great British Dream Factory" /><ref name="The Herald: Scottish roots" /> Jones, the oldest attendee at the KACC, soon befriended Steve Hammond and Russell Kay.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /> Mike Dailly, the youngest participant at 14, joined the club at the recommendation of a friend in 1984 with the Commodore Plus/4 he had received for Christmas.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="PCGamesN: making of Lemmings" /> The quartet bonded over their shared interest in creating original games instead of playing or cloning existing ones.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="The Great British Dream Factory" />
During their time at the KACC, Dailly and Hammond developed Freek Out for the Commodore Plus/4, which they finished and sold to the publisher Cascade for "a modest fee", while Jones and Kay cooperated on Moonshadow for the ZX Spectrum, which was eventually released as Zone Trooper.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="The Herald: Scottish roots" /> Jones and Dailly also worked on The Game With No Name.<ref name="The Herald: Scottish roots" /> As Sinclair Research's market share dropped significantly during 1986, Timex enacted layoffs in Dundee.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /> Jones accepted a voluntary redundancy for Template:GBP, a roughly half-year salary that he invested into an Amiga 1000, and subsequently enrolled in computer science at the Dundee Institute of Technology (DIT).<ref name="The Herald: Scottish roots" /><ref name="The Scotsman: Inside the minds" /> Hammond also attended the DIT, and all four soon joined its computer club.<ref name="Scottish Games: Manual Override 1" /> Because Jones easily passed the course's first year, he had much time to learn to programme for the Amiga and spent one year creating the shoot 'em up CopperCon1.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /> Working out of his parents' bedroom, he provisionally used the monicker "Acme".<ref name="The Herald: Scottish roots" /> The game featured graphics by the demoscene member Tony Smith, with whom he communicated by post, and sounds Dailly and Hammond recorded from a Salamander machine at a local arcade.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="Gamasutra: Catch Up" />
After courting publishers at the Personal Computer World Show, Jones initially agreed to a publishing deal with Hewson Consultants but, fearing that his game would merely become the Amiga version of Zynaps, he walked away from the agreement.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /> Instead, he turned to the nascent Psygnosis in 1987 and agreed to a six-game publishing deal.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /> CopperCon1 was renamed Draconia, which was ultimately changed to Menace because the name was too similar to that of Draconus.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="The Games Machine: Menace review" /> Jones also agreed to bring Psygnosis's Ballistix from the Amiga to the Commodore 64, for which he engaged Dailly and Hammond.<ref name="Scottish Games: Manual Override 1" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: Desert Island Disks" /> In his search for a company name to replace the already taken "Acme", Jones discussed alternatives with the members of the DIT's computer club in 1988.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="The Herald: Scottish roots" /><ref name="Scottish Games: Manual Override 1" /> Among others, "Milliard", "Visual Voyage", and "Alias Smith and Jones" (in reference to MenaceTemplate:'s artist) were floated, and Jones finally settled on "DMA Design".<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /> The abbreviation "DMA" stood for "direct memory access" in Amiga manuals but carried no meaning in the company name.<ref name="VentureBeat: Gamelab" /> While "Direct Mind Access" was official briefly, Jones eventually began stating that the abbreviation was short for "Doesn't Mean Anything".<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="Scottish Games: Manual Override 1" /> He formally founded DMA Design in 1988, when he was 22 years old.<ref name="Develop: IP profile" /><ref name="BBC News: Dundee hub" /><ref name="Modern Dundee" /><ref name="The Herald: winning game plan" />
Initial games with Psygnosis and Lemmings (1988–1994)Edit
Menace was released in October 1988 after 18 months of development.<ref name="The Games Machine: Menace release" /><ref name="The One: Profile" /> It was DMA Design's debut game and the first game under Psygnosis's Psyclapse label for budget-priced games.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /> Jones only received Template:GBP for every copy sold, which he retrospectively viewed as a "terrible" deal. Still, the 20,000 sales allowed him to buy a car and regularly visit the Psygnosis offices to meet other game developers.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="The Herald: Scottish roots" /> While working on a sequel to Menace, the difficulty of Jones's university programme spiked, leading him to drop out and pursue game development full-time, against the advice of his professors.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="Daily Record: game and fortune" /> He intended to return after one year but never finished his studies, eventually receiving an honorary degree.<ref name="VentureBeat: Gamelab" /><ref name="The Herald: winning game plan" /> Jones hired Dailly, who had just been expelled from college, as the first employee in 1989. Dailly began working on a Commodore 64 conversion of Menace.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="The Herald: Scottish roots" /> Hammond joined second on a part-time basis as he continued his education, followed shortly by Kay and Brian Watson, one of Jones's university friends.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="The Herald: Scottish roots" /> The Menace sequel, Blood Money, was released in April 1989.<ref name="New Computer Express: Money" /> It sold 40,000 copies.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /> Gary Timmons joined the studio shortly after the game was completed, while Dailly developed its Commodore 64 version and began working on a PC Engine port of Shadow of the Beast for Psygnosis.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: Desert Island Disks" /> DMA Design also made Shadow of the BeastTemplate:'s Commodore 64 port and the PC Engine and MS-DOS versions for Ballistix.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="The One: Profile" />
Jones's father-in-law, the owner of the Dundee fish and chip shop The Deep Sea, lent him a small office space above the shop's former location at 134B Nethergate in Dundee.<ref name="Dundee Culture: Nethergate" /><ref name="The Times: Four geeks" /> The infill building, built in 1893, is sometimes called the Wee Pink Nethergate House.<ref name="Dundee Culture: Nethergate" /> The office was inaugurated on 1 August 1989.<ref name="Dundee Culture: Nethergate" /><ref name="The Times: Four geeks" /> The studio continued to expand, also hiring many students to work part-time.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="The Guardian: How we made" /> In 1990, DMA Design cancelled several projects: The Golden Axe-inspired Gore! was shelved due to technical restrictions of the Amiga at the time and the platformer Cutiepoo did not make adequate progress after one year of work by the freelance programmer Tony Colgan.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Raze: Cutiepoo" /> Jones further put aside his game Walker as he found he could not achieve his vision for it and stopped working on the Monster Cartridge, a cheat cartridge for the Amiga, after another such product was released first.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" />
Working remotely from Edinburgh, the programmer Ian Dunlop and artist Neill Glancy began to experiment with the technology from Walker.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: Walker" /> When Dailly learned that they were working with characters just sixteen pixels tall, he challenged himself to create characters that were recognisable at half the height.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /> During one lunch break, he animated a demo of small characters walking in a line and being killed comically, to the amusement of the office. Kay remarked that a game could be created from this. Jones concurred and thought of a design in which the player should prevent the characters from being killed.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="PCGamesN: making of Lemmings" /> Kay wrote a demo before it was passed on to Dailly and later to Jones, who worked out the gameplay foundations with Timmons.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Desert Island Disks" /> The game was named Lemmings upon Kay's suggestion and released in February 1991.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="The Times: Four geeks" /> It sold 55,000 copies on its first day and was swiftly brought to other regions and platforms.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /><ref name="The Herald: Scottish roots" /> Jon Dye, another former KACC attendee, was hired later that year to bring the game to the ZX Spectrum.<ref name="The Scotsman: Scottish legends" />
Lemmings had 20 million lifetime sales across 21 platforms.<ref name="The Herald: Scottish roots" /><ref name="NGen: Gamespotting" /> At 25 years old, Jones became a millionaire and subsequently bought multiple luxury cars.<ref name="The Scotsman: Inside the minds" /><ref name="VentureBeat: Gamelab" /> The company rapidly expanded and began working on several additional projects.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Wandering Creatures" /> As Psygnosis sought DMA Design to produce Lemmings expansion packs and sequels in the wake of this success, the studio developed Oh No! More Lemmings (1991), Lemmings 2: The Tribes (1993), and All New World of Lemmings (1994).<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /> It also made the Christmas-themed Holiday Lemmings to be distributed for free on covermounts in 1991 and 1992, before Psygnosis made it a commercial release for 1993 and 1994.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Lemmings" /><ref name="Eurogamer: Christmas Lemmings" />
By November 1992, DMA Design had grown to 22 staff, including 10 former classmates of Jones, and relocated to proper offices at the Dundee Technology Park.<ref name="The Herald: winning game plan" /> As Kay left DMA Design in 1993 to form Visual Sciences, Jones and Dailly hired Keith Hamilton as a replacement and put him in charge of All New World of Lemmings. This entry focused on larger, more detailed lemmings, which Hamilton and Jones later believed diminished the game's charm.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /> In the same year, Psygnosis released the Amiga-exclusive Walker and Hired Guns, which had been created principally by Scott Johnston with a story by Hammond.<ref name="Scottish Games: Manual Override 2" /><ref name="Eurogamer: Walker" /> All New World of Lemmings was the final game in Jones's original deal with Psygnosis. With the studio experiencing fatigue for the Lemmings series, Psygnosis hired other developers for subsequent entries, including Kay and Visual Sciences for Lemmings Paintball.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: Lemmings" /><ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" />
Partnerships with Nintendo and BMG Interactive (1994–1997)Edit
After leaving Lemmings behind, DMA Design began researching development for the 3DO.<ref name="NGen: Gamespotting" /> In another project, Psygnosis briefly had DMA Design emulate an in-development Star Wars game on the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES).<ref name="GIbiz: Rise and Fall of Sony" /> During one trade show, Jones caught the attention of Nintendo with a full-motion video Star Wars clip running on the SNES, something previously believed impossible.<ref name="Scottish Games: Manual Override 2" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> At the time, the company was seeking development partners for its upcoming Nintendo 64 console, which was then called Project Reality.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> DMA Design signed a two-game contract—worth several million pounds—and joined Nintendo's "Dream Team" of external partners.<ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /><ref name="Jacked: Race'n'Chase" /> When this partnership was announced in April 1994, DMA Design was only Nintendo's second partner for the platform.<ref name="Scottish Games: Manual Override 2" /><ref name="The Herald: quite some game" /> Using these funds, the studio grew to occupy Template:Convert of office space at the Dundee Technology Park and spent around Template:GBP outfitting all rooms with high-end devices.<ref name="Jacked: Race'n'Chase" /> The partnership also led DMA Design to cease developing for the 3DO.<ref name="NGen: Gamespotting" /><ref name="Scottish Games: Manual Override 2" /> The studio steered clear of other consoles, like the PlayStation and Sega Saturn, because Jones disliked "multiformat publishing for the sake of it".<ref name="NGen: Gamespotting" />
DMA Design's first project for Nintendo was Unirally, a racing game featuring animated unicycles created using 2D sprites rendered from a 3D model.<ref name="Nintendo Life: Unirally" /> Following the game's 1994 release for the SNES, the animation studio Pixar sued Nintendo over perceived similarities between the game's characters and the unicycle protagonist from Pixar's 1987 animated short film Red's Dream.<ref name="VentureBeat: Gamelab" /><ref name="Nintendo Life: Unirally" /> The judge ruled in Pixar's favour and the two companies agreed that Nintendo would cease the production of Unirally copies while Pixar was to receive a Nintendo 64 game development kit.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Desert Island Disks" /><ref name="Nintendo Life: Unirally" /> Despite the ruling, the game sold 300,000 copies.<ref name="Nintendo Life: Unirally" /> DMA Design continued working with Nintendo on Kid Kirby, a spin-off in Nintendo's Kirby franchise made by Colgan after requesting a second chance from Jones.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /> The game featured a young version of the title character, who would have been launched around levels using the Super NES Mouse.<ref name="Nintendo Life: Kid Kirby" /> In November 1994, a team of five people commenced developing Body Harvest, scheduled to be a launch title for the Nintendo 64.<ref name="Scottish Games: Manual Override 2" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" />
In the meantime, Dailly was experimenting with ways to render 3D buildings from a top-down perspective. To showcase this technology, he devised a game that saw the player control a dinosaur and destroy the city. After adding cars to make the scene more lively, a colleague suggested having the player drive these cars instead.<ref name="BBC News: birth pangs" /> Jones took notice of Dailly's project and passed it to a team that should turn it into a game.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Desert Island Disks" /> In July 1993, The Liaison and Promotion Company began handling the marketing for DMA Design and its games, and it introduced the studio to potential partners for the project.<ref name="The Herald: Liaison" /> Jones consequently presented a prototype of the game, which became known as Race'n'Chase, to BMG Interactive, the recently formed games arm of Bertelsmann.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /><ref name="Jacked: Race'n'Chase" /> The two companies signed a Template:GBP contract in March 1995, wherein the studio would develop four games for the publisher.<ref name="The Herald: Liaison" /><ref name="The Herald: BMG deal" /> According to The Liaison and Promotion Company, Jones had not informed the firm of the impending deal, instead claiming he would partner with another company, such as Virgin Interactive Entertainment. DMA Design and The Liaison and Promotion Company then severed ties just before the deal with BMG Interactive had been finalised, and this became a legal dispute when DMA Design refused to pay the marketing firm.<ref name="The Herald: Liaison" />
The publishing agreement with BMG Interactive covered Race'n'Chase, Space Station Silicon Valley, Tanktics, and the stealth game Covert.<ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> With the acquired funds, DMA Design intended to expand its offices and increase its 40-strong headcount, quickly growing to 130 people.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /><ref name="The Herald: BMG deal" /> The company took over an additional Template:Convert of office space and expanded to two adjacent buildings, therein also setting up a Template:GBP motion capture studio that found little usage.<ref name="Jacked: Gouranga!" /><ref name="The Herald: active interest" /> Another section housed DMA Music with seven full-time musicians.<ref name="NGen: Gamespotting" /> Race'n'Chase formally began production in March 1995.<ref name="Wireframe: chaotic origins" /><ref name="Engadget: GTA design docs" /> The development team consisted mostly of recent graduates with little development experience, with Hamilton as the lead programmer.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /> As such, the unorganised team struggled with the development until Gary Penn moved from BMG Interactive to DMA Design as the game's creative director and producer.<ref name="Wireframe: chaotic origins" /><ref name="Eurogamer: almost cancelled" /> BMG Interactive's production team, including the head of development Sam Houser, was hands-off during the development.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /><ref name="Wireframe: chaotic origins" />
Body Harvest progressed slowly and faced numerous delays, such that it missed its intended launch with the Nintendo 64.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> The production also stalled on Kid Kirby and the climbing-themed action game Zenith, and Nintendo cancelled the former following the low sales of the Super NES Mouse.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> Furthermore, the American division of BMG Interactive regularly pushed for Race'n'Chase to be cancelled because the team kept missing development milestones.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /><ref name="Eurogamer: almost cancelled" /> As the studio continued work on multiple games, several staffers believed Body Harvest would be a bigger hit.<ref name="Wireframe: chaotic origins" /> With DMA Design struggling financially, Jones kept agreeing to game projects solely to receive sign-on bonuses and with no plans to complete them. At one point, the studio had seven or eight projects in development at the same time.<ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> In the latter half of 1996, GT Interactive signed with DMA Design for Attack! and Clan Wars, despite neither draft having a proper team assigned.<ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> Jones also sold the rights to Grand Theft Auto to BMG Interactive to help keep the studio afloat.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /> In November 1996, DMA Design opened a satellite studio in Boulder, Colorado.<ref name="Devil's Thumb: About" /><ref name="Engadget: Devil's Thumb" /> Anthony Harman was installed as the studio's manager, and it had 27 employees by April 1997.<ref name="Albuquerque Journal: Boulder" />
Sale to Gremlin Interactive (1997)Edit
The development on Body Harvest stalled under the conflicting demands between the Japanese and American branches of Nintendo.<ref name="Scottish Games: Manual Override 2" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> The team sought to keep up its relationship with Nintendo and caved in to these demands. Despite stark changes to the game's design, Nintendo was dissatisfied with the result and cancelled the game.<ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> Still in financial disarray and wanting his company to focus on game development,<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> Jones arranged for Gremlin Interactive to acquire DMA Design for Template:GBP in April 1997.<ref name="Develop: IP profile" /><ref name="The Daily Telegraph: Gremlin float" /> The publisher was impressed with DMA Design's multi-use 3DMA game engine and wanted the two companies to cooperate on research and development.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /> It also expected DMA Design to become profitable within two years of the acquisition.<ref name="The Daily Telegraph: Gremlin financials" /> Gremlin Interactive introduced several project management methods—including Microsoft Project and Gantt charts—that the studio perceived as unnecessary bureaucracy. Additionally, the company made DMA Design finish games as quickly as possible, as opposed to Jones's prior methodology of releasing a game only once it is good.<ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> Jones received a 5% stake in Gremlin Interactive and became a member of its board of directors.<ref name="Daily Record: game and fortune" /><ref name="Edge: Gremlin" /> He subsequently moved into the creative director role for DMA Design.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /> In May, the studio had 100 employees.<ref name="Daily Record: game and fortune" />
As another result of the acquisition, the Boulder studio was spun off as a separate company.<ref name="The Courier: where are they now" /><ref name="Steve Hammond: GTA Q&A" /> Under Harman's continued leadership, it was renamed Template:Visible anchor.<ref name="Engadget: Devil's Thumb" /><ref name="NGen: Hired Guns" /> The Boulder studio had been developing a remake of Hired Guns for Psygnosis with Hammond as the writer. Being more passionate about this project than Grand Theft Auto, he left DMA Design to work on the remake in a freelance position, which he later said he regretted "ever since".<ref name="The Courier: where are they now" /><ref name="Steve Hammond: GTA Q&A" /> Devil's Thumb Entertainment also developed Mike Piazza's StrikeZone and Tides of War for GT Interactive.<ref name="IGN: Hired Guns" /> In March 1999, the studio was acquired and absorbed by the developer VR-1, also based in Boulder.<ref name="VR-1: Devil's Thumb" /><ref name="Herald News: VR-1" /> The Hired Guns remake was never released.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Hired Guns" />
Two months after DMA Design's acquisition, Gremlin Interactive became a public company on the London Stock Exchange.<ref name="Develop: IP profile" /><ref name="The Independent: Gremlin public" /> Jones's stake in the company was valued at Template:GBP at the time.<ref name="Daily Record: game and fortune" /> Meanwhile, Bertelsmann had decided to withdraw from the video game industry and shut down the American division of BMG Interactive. In its place, the release in North America was licensed to ASC Games.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /> Gremlin Interactive also picked up the rights to Body Harvest and engaged Midway Home Entertainment as the publisher in North America.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="IGN: Body Harvest US" /> For Tanktics, the North American publishing rights were sold to Interplay Entertainment.<ref name="GameSpot: Interplay" /> DMA Design further negotiated back the rights to Attack! and Clan Wars from GT Interactive.<ref name="Gremlin: Interim Results" />
By July 1997, The Liaison and Promotion Company had sued DMA Design for Template:GBP over breach of contract in relation to the deal with BMG Interactive. Lord Penrose, presiding over the case at the Court of Session, then opined that the marketing firm had been pivotal in the deal being reached and that DMA Design had taken a "rather cynical action" by excluding it from the negotiations, asserting that the actions did constitute breach of contract.<ref name="The Herald: Liaison" /> Also in 1997, DMA Design became one of the founding members of the Scottish Game Alliance, alongside Visual Sciences and five other studios.<ref name="Daily Record: AIM for the NET" /> Meanwhile, in November 1997, Jones helped the Dundee Institute of Technology (now called the University of Abertay Dundee) introduce an unprecedented computer games degree. In 1998, DMA Design developed games for a game design course at Dundee College.<ref name="The Courier: where are they now" /><ref name="Daily Record: Hollywood CALLS" />
Sale to Take-Two Interactive (1997–2000)Edit
In the lead-up to the debut of Race'n'Chase, now renamed Grand Theft Auto, BMG Interactive hired the publicist Max Clifford, who wanted to use controversy to market the game. Baron Campbell of Croy warned of the game at the United Kingdom's House of Lords in May 1997, and several tabloid newspapers called for it to be banned in the country.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /> Grand Theft Auto was released in November 1997 and, despite mixed reviews, quickly sold 500,000 units and generated Template:GBP.<ref name="Jacked: Eating the Hamster" /> Visual Sciences developed the PlayStation port for Grand Theft Auto, which was largely programmed by Kay and produced by Houser.<ref name="The Courier: where are they now" /><ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: Grand Theft Auto making of" /> The success diminished the focus on other games, particularly Space Station Silicon Valley, and a sequel was soon approved.<ref name="Jacked: Liberty City" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: Space Station Silicon Valley" /> Bertelsmann decided to ramp down BMG Interactive to reduce costs. At the same time, the publisher Take-Two Interactive was looking to grow its business and invited Houser to discuss his vision for game development.<ref name="Jacked: Liberty City" /> As a result, Take-Two acquired BMG Interactive, since dormant, for 1.85 million shares worth Template:US$ in March 1998.<ref name="Jacked: Liberty City" /><ref name="GameSpot: BMG acquisition" /> Through the acquisition, Take-Two also obtained the intellectual property of Grand Theft Auto and Space Station Silicon Valley, and it published the former's PlayStation version in North America later that year.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /><ref name="GameSpot: BMG acquisition" />
Houser subsequently moved over to Take-Two as its "vice president of worldwide product development", in charge of internal and external development studios.<ref name="Jacked: Liberty City" /> The company also incrementally purchased all individual publishing rights for Grand Theft Auto from other companies to hold the exclusive rights to the game worldwide.<ref name="Wireframe: chaotic origins" /> Body Harvest and Space Station Silicon Valley were released in late 1998 but were scarcely marketed, leading to meagre sales.<ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> Houser and some of his former BMG Interactive colleagues joined Take-Two to form the Rockstar Games publishing label in December 1998.<ref name="Wireframe: chaotic origins" /> The newborn company commissioned its internal studio, Rockstar Canada, to develop two expansions for the original game, Grand Theft Auto: London 1969 and Grand Theft Auto: London 1961, which were released in 1999.<ref name="Wireframe: chaotic origins" />
In March 1999, the poor sales of Body Harvest contributed to dire financials at Gremlin Interactive that forced it into a Template:GBP takeover by the French publisher Infogrames.<ref name="Develop: IP profile" /><ref name="The Guardian: cyber takeovers" /> During this year, Dailly left the company to join Kay at Visual Sciences as its head of research and development.<ref name="The Courier: where are they now" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: Desert Island Disks" /> Under the new ownership, Gremlin Interactive published DMA Design's Wild Metal Country in May and Tanktics in June.<ref name="PC Zone: Wild Metal Country" /><ref name="PC Zone: Tanktics" /> As Infogrames was more conservative and sought to produce child-friendly games, it did not wish to hold on to any assets related to Grand Theft Auto.<ref name="The Herald: play for the future" /><ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /> Take-Two Interactive bought DMA Design from the publisher in September 1999 for the nominal price of Template:GBP while assuming Template:US$ in debt.<ref name="Develop: IP profile" /><ref name="Take-Two Interactive: 10-K 2000" /> DMA Design henceforth worked closely with Rockstar Games, which Houser described as a "perfect match".<ref name="Take-Two: Acquisition" /> During these ownership and managerial changes, several projects were cancelled, including Attack!, Grand Theft Auto and Wild Metal Country for the Nintendo 64, and an Unreal version for the 64DD.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /> At the time of Take-Two's acquisition, DMA Design was working on GTA 3D and Grand Theft Auto: Online Crime World.<ref name="The Guardian: Take two" /><ref name="PC Zone: No Stopping GTA" />
Grand Theft Auto 2, published by Rockstar Games, was released in October 1999 and quickly sold more than 1 million copies, the first Take-Two game to do so.<ref name="GameSpot: GTA2 release" /><ref name="MCV: Sam Houser's CV" /> Shortly thereafter, DMA Design established a satellite studio in the Leith area of Edinburgh to house the former teams of Body Harvest and Space Station Silicon Valley.<ref name="Wireframe: chaotic origins" /><ref name="The Scotsman: Scottish references" /> Among those who relocated there were Leslie Benzies, Aaron Garbut, and Obbe Vermeij, all of whom had worked on Space Station Silicon Valley.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" /> Under the direction of Andrew Semple, the branch launched with 25 people.<ref name="Develop: Inside Rockstar North Part 2" /> While the Edinburgh location continued to develop a 3D Grand Theft Auto game, now modelled after Driver, the Dundee office was working on an expansion for Grand Theft Auto 2 set in Miami, of which the former was ultimately prioritised and became Grand Theft Auto III.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /> Jones was the last member of the original DMA Design team to work on this game.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /> However, unhappy with his studio's new overseas ownership, he departed the company in early 2000.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /> With three other former DMA Design employees, he formed the game studio Denki.<ref name="Game Developer: Philosophy Of Denki" /> In February, alongside an investment in Denki, Rage Software hired Jones to oversee its operations in Scotland.<ref name="NWR: Ragin' online GBA" /> Jones bought out Rage Software's Dundee studio in 2002 to form Real Time Worlds, which went on to hire many past DMA Design staffers.<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Gamasutra: Catch Up" /> Benzies was soon appointed as the studio's development director and ultimately became its president.<ref name="IGN: Rockstar Studios rename" /><ref name="IGN: San Andreas" />
Rockstar Games released a Dreamcast port of Wild Metal Country, renamed Wild Metal, in February 2000.<ref name="IGN: Wild Metal" /> Take-Two encouraged DMA Design to narrow its focus to fewer, larger game projects. Many staffers felt at odds with this shift, as it diminished the prior atmosphere they felt was driven by creativity.<ref name="Wireframe: chaotic origins" /> The publisher closed the Dundee studio in March 2000, relocating many of the 35 staffers to Edinburgh and laying off the rest.<ref name="Grand Thieves & Tomb Raiders: Hit and Run" /><ref name="The Herald: DMA pulls out" /> The move was to enable a merger between DMA Design, Rockstar Games, and Pixel Broadband Studios under the "Broadband Studios" name.<ref name="The Herald: DMA pulls out" /> The combined entity would have largely leveraged Pixel Broadband Studios's online game technology.<ref name="IGN: Broadband Studios" /><ref name="The Herald: DMA to expand" /> Jim Woods, who had become the DMA Design's managing director by this time, resigned as he wished to stay in Dundee.<ref name="The Herald: DMA pulls out" /> The merger was ultimately abandoned, as was Grand Theft Auto: Online Crime World.<ref name="Time Extension: Abandoned" />
Grand Theft Auto trilogy and rebranding as Rockstar North (2000–2004)Edit
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During the development of Grand Theft Auto III, DMA Design again expanded rapidly, forming a core team of 20 people and engaging "dozens more" in some capacity.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Grand Theft Auto III making of" /> The total team encompassed 60 people.<ref name="Eurogamer: not really interesting" /> The team retained the focus on a mostly unconstrained open world from the prior two games while introducing fully 3D graphics and a third-person view.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Grand Theft Auto III making of" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: Grand Theft Auto history" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: Vice City" /> With much of the game planned out from the start, the development progressed smoothly, such that it was released for the PlayStation 2 in late 2001.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Grand Theft Auto III making of" /> The game sold 6 million copies within one year and more than 15 million in total, exceeding the development team's expectations.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Vice City" /> It was the best-selling game of 2001 and the second-best in 2002.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Grand Theft Auto III making of" /> Grand Theft Auto IIITemplate:'s approach to 3D open worlds has been referred to as genre-defining and inspired a number of successful titles, also spawning the category of Grand Theft Auto clones, which includes The Simpsons: Hit & Run, True Crime: Streets of LA, Driver 3, and Saints Row.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Grand Theft Auto history" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: Grand Theft Auto III open worlds" />
Plans to outfit Grand Theft Auto III with an online multiplayer component were scrapped in favour of a follow up, Grand Theft Auto: Vice City.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Grand Theft Auto III making of" /> Conceptualised as an expansion pack for Grand Theft Auto III, Rockstar Games made it a standalone product as its scope expanded. Vice City reused its predecessor's engine, such that the programmers were not engaged until six months before the end of the production, and lessons learned from the previous development cycle allowed the designers to plan features more efficiently. In the meantime, the programmers worked on bringing Grand Theft Auto III to personal computers.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Vice City" /> In March 2002, DMA Design was renamed Rockstar Studios, which Houser described as the studio's "final integration" with Rockstar Games.<ref name="IGN: Rockstar Studios rename" /><ref name="Eurogamer: Rockstar Studios rename" /> The name was revised to Rockstar North in May.<ref name="IGN: Rockstar North rename" /> Vice City was completed in one year and released in late 2002.<ref name="Retro Gamer: Vice City" /> For its work on the game, Rockstar North won the "best in-house development studio" and "creativity" awards at the first Develop Industry Excellence Awards in August 2003.<ref name="The Guardian: N-Gage" />
Following Vice CityTemplate:'s release, Rockstar North began work on Z, a zombie survival game set on a Scottish island. The game repurposed code from Vice City and was in production for around one month before the concept lost traction at the studio.<ref name="Eurogamer: Vermeij" /><ref name="RPS: Vermeij" /> The studio's Manhunt, a stealth game, was released in 2003 after roughly three years in development.<ref name="IGN: Manhunt" /> Due to its dark tone and focus on realistic violence, it was considered the studio's pet project, and most people at Rockstar Games wanted no part in it.<ref name="RPS: Manhunt" /> Despite provoking controversy for its graphic depiction of violence, the game sold 1.5 million copies.<ref name="Chicago Tribune: Manhunt controversy" /><ref name="GIbiz: Manhunt sales" /> Rockstar North further assisted Rockstar Vienna and later Rockstar London in the production of a sequel, Manhunt 2, which entered into production in January 2004.<ref name="IGN: Manhunt 2" /><ref name="Ars Technica: Manhunt 2" />
Rockstar North's Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas was given one year of additional development time over Vice City, which allowed the team to rework core parts of the gameplay and visuals.<ref name="Eurogamer: Art of GTA San Andreas" /> It had a budget of less than Template:US$.<ref name="WSJ: San Andreas budget" /> By the end of the game's production, Rockstar North had relocated to offices on Calton Square in Edinburgh.<ref name="The Scotsman: Scottish references" /><ref name="MCV: Profile" /> San Andreas was released in October 2004. In four days, the game generated Template:US$ and sold 2.1 million copies, 45% above Vice CityTemplate:'s initial sales.<ref name="GameSpot: San Andreas sales" /> Alongside several other year-end accolades, San Andreas was named the "game of the year" at the 2004 Spike Video Game Awards and 2005 Golden Joystick Awards.<ref name="Game Developer: Spike Video Game Awards 2004" /><ref name="The Guardian: Golden Joystick Awards 2005" /> Grand Theft Auto III, Vice City, and San Andreas were bundled as Grand Theft Auto: The Trilogy in 2006.<ref name="IGN: The Trilogy" /> By 2008, they had amassed sales of 14.5 million, 17.5 million, and 21.5 million, respectively.<ref name="Take-Two: Sales" />
Grand Theft Auto IV, Grand Theft Auto V, and development collaborations (2004–2013)Edit
After San Andreas, Rockstar North began producing Grand Theft Auto IV. At the same time, the studio commenced the production of a stealth game called Agent (codenamed Jimmy in reference to James Bond). A game with the same name and concept had previously been cancelled at the sister studio Rockstar San Diego, and Benzies was interested in furthering the idea. The studio was split evenly between the two projects, although Grand Theft Auto IV was soon prioritised over Agent. Although Agent was announced for the PlayStation 3 in 2009, its trademark was abandoned in 2018 and the listing was later removed from Rockstar Games's website.<ref name="Eurogamer: Vermeij" /><ref name="RPS: Vermeij" /> Meanwhile, Rockstar North worked closely with Rockstar Leeds on three Grand Theft Auto games for handheld game consoles: Liberty City Stories, Vice City Stories, and Chinatown Wars.<ref name="IGN: Liberty City Stories" /><ref name="Eurogamer: Vice City Stories" /><ref name="IGN: Chinatown Wars" />
Grand Theft Auto IVTemplate:'s production encompassed 220 people at the studio and 1,000 worldwide. Benzies estimated the budget at Template:US$.<ref name="The Times: Grand Theft Auto IV budget" /> Upon its April 2008 release, Grand Theft Auto IV broke the record for the highest revenue for a game within one day at Template:US$ from 3.6 million copies sold.<ref name="LATimes: Grand Theft Auto IV sales" /> At the 2008 Spike Video Game Awards, the game won "game of the year" and earned Rockstar North a nomination for "best studio".<ref name="Ledger-Enquirer: awards" /><ref name="VG247: VGAs 2008" /> The studio continued with two expansion packs—The Lost and Damned and The Ballad of Gay TonyTemplate:Hsp—which were later bundled as Grand Theft Auto: Episodes from Liberty City.<ref name="MCV: Episodes from Liberty City" /> In the meantime, the studio contributed to Rockstar San Diego's Red Dead Redemption in 2010 and Team Bondi's L.A. Noire in 2011.<ref name="IGN: Unseen Mastermind" /> For Max Payne 3 in 2012, Rockstar North assisted a number of other Rockstar Games studios collectively credited as "Rockstar Studios".<ref name="Rockstar Games: Max Payne 3" />
Immediately following the completion of Grand Theft Auto IV, Rockstar North began preliminary work on Grand Theft Auto V.<ref name="Develop: Inside Rockstar North Part 1" /> Rockstar North's 360 employees formed the core of a worldwide team of 1,000 staff, including several other Rockstar Games studios.<ref name="Develop: Inside Rockstar North Part 2" /> The core development took roughly three years, and the game was released in September 2013.<ref name="Develop: Inside Rockstar North Part 1" /> The game broke the records for the best-selling and highest-grossing video game within one day and the fastest entertainment property to reach Template:US$ in revenue at three days.<ref name="Polygon: Grand Theft Auto V records" /><ref name="IGN: Grand Theft Auto V records" /> With continuing sales and the success of its online multiplayer counterpart, Grand Theft Auto Online, the game grossed an estimated Template:US$ by 2018, making it the most profitable entertainment product of all time.<ref name="PC Gamer: Grand Theft Auto V most profitable" /> With 200 million copies sold as of March 2024, Grand Theft Auto V became the second-best-selling game ever, adding to the 425 million total sales for the series.<ref name="VGC: Grand Theft Auto V sales" /><ref name="Digital Trends: Grand Theft Auto series sales" />
Continued expansion and leadership dispute (2014–present)Edit
In 2014, Rockstar North took over Template:Convert of office space in Barclay House on Holyrood Road in Edinburgh. The building had been constructued for the previous tenant, the newspaper group The Scotsman, in 1999.<ref name="The Herald: Barclay House" /> In the same year, the studio began receiving tax credits from the newly established Video Games Tax Relief system set up by the government of the United Kingdom. According to the investigative think tank TaxWatch UK, the studio had received Template:GBP by 2020, 37% of the system's total payout, while having not paid any corporation tax since 2009.<ref name="The Guardian: TaxWatch" /><ref name="GIbiz: TaxWatch" /> In response, Rockstar Games stated that the tax credits had enabled higher investments into the country, while The Association for UK Interactive Entertainment reported that the system had brought about a fourfold return on investment for the British economy.<ref name="GIbiz: TaxWatch" />
When Benzies went on a sabbatical in September 2014, his responsibilities as the studio head were picked up by Garbut and Rob Nelson, both art directors for the studio. He did not return, culminating in the announcement of his departure in January 2016.<ref name="Kotaku: Benzies exit" /> On 12 April 2016, Benzies sued Rockstar Games, Take-Two, Sam Houser, and Dan Houser, claiming that the companies had withheld Template:US$ in royalty payments following his departure.<ref name="GIbiz: Benzies lawsuit start" /><ref name="GIbiz: Benzies lawsuit details" /> In the suit, he claimed that the Houser brothers had persuaded him to take a six-month sabbatical and fired his son and several friends during this absence.<ref name="Polygon: Benzies lawsuit" /> As Benzies tried to return after the planned end of his sabbatical in April 2015, his building access had been disabled and the office manager ordered him off the premises.<ref name="GIbiz: Benzies lawsuit start" /> The lawsuit stated that the three "Rockstar Principals"—himself and the Houser brothers—had established a shell corporation to evenly share profits and eventually leave Take-Two. Additionally, Benzies accused Sam Houser of having built a sexually charged culture at Rockstar Games and having ineptly handled the development of Red Dead Redemption.<ref name="GIbiz: Benzies lawsuit start" />
Take-Two quickly filed a counterclaim and described Benzies's claims as "entirely without merit and in many instances downright bizarre".<ref name="Polygon: Benzies lawsuit" /><ref name="GIbiz: Benzies lawsuit response" /> The claim asserted that, because Benzies had departed Rockstar North without a good cause, he was not entitled to any additional compensation.<ref name="GIbiz: Benzies lawsuit start" /> The New York Supreme Court partially dismissed Benzies's lawsuit in April 2018 because the profit-sharing agreement did not guarantee equal pay for the Rockstar Principals, although he remained entitled to some royalties.<ref name="GIbiz: Benzies lawsuit setback" /> Take-Two later accused Benzies of poaching employees from Rockstar North for his newer studio, Royal Circus Games, and argued that the company's name and trademark had been deliberately chosen to have consumers confuse the two entities.<ref name="The Herald: Benzies lawsuit" /><ref name="The Scotsman: Benzies lawsuit" /> Royal Circus Games was renamed Build a Rocket Boy in October 2018 and, following a confidential settlement, the case was dismissed on 8 February 2019.<ref name="The Scotsman: Benzies lawsuit" /><ref name="New York: Discontinuance" />
For Red Dead Redemption 2, all Rockstar Games studios pooled their resources to act as one team.<ref name="Variety: Red Dead Redemption 2" /> By the time the game was released in October 2018, Rockstar North had grown to 650 employees.<ref name="GQ: Red Dead Redemption 2" /> In July 2021, Rockstar North bought Barclay House, where it had become the sole tenant, for Template:GBP and the adjacent Holyrood Park House, which it had since occupied parts of, for Template:GBP.<ref name="The Scotsman: Holyrood purchase" /><ref name="Lismore: Holyrood purchase" /> During 2022, the studio grew to occupy an additional Template:Convert of office space in the latter.<ref name="The Scotsman: Holyrood expansion" />
Games developedEdit
As DMA DesignEdit
As Rockstar NorthEdit
| Year | Title | Platform(s) | Publisher(s) | Notes | Template:Refh |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2002 | Grand Theft Auto: Vice City | Android, Fire OS, iOS, macOS, PlayStation 2, Windows, Xbox | Rockstar Games | Template:Centred | |
| 2003 | Manhunt | PlayStation 2, Windows, Xbox | Template:Centred | ||
| 2004 | Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas | Android, Fire OS, iOS, macOS, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Windows, Windows Phone, Xbox, Xbox 360 | Template:Centred | ||
| 2005 | Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories | Android, Fire OS, iOS, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable | Co-developed with Rockstar Leeds | Template:Centred | |
| 2006 | Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories | PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable | Template:Centred | ||
| 2007 | Manhunt 2 | PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, Wii, Windows | Supportive development for Rockstar London | Template:Centred | |
| 2008 | Grand Theft Auto IV | PlayStation 3, Windows, Xbox 360 | Template:Centred | ||
| 2009 | Grand Theft Auto IV: The Lost and Damned | PlayStation 3, Windows, Xbox 360 | Template:Centred | ||
| Grand Theft Auto: Chinatown Wars | Android, Fire OS, iOS, Nintendo DS, PlayStation Portable | Co-developed with Rockstar Leeds | Template:Centred | ||
| Grand Theft Auto: The Ballad of Gay Tony | PlayStation 3, Windows, Xbox 360 | Template:Centred | |||
| 2010 | Red Dead Redemption | Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Windows, Xbox 360 | Supportive development for Rockstar San Diego | rowspan="2" Template:Centred | |
| 2011 | L.A. Noire | Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Windows, Xbox 360, Xbox One | Supportive development for Team Bondi | ||
| 2012 | Max Payne 3 | macOS, PlayStation 3, Windows, Xbox 360 | Developed as part of Rockstar Studios | Template:Centred | |
| 2013 | Grand Theft Auto V | PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, Xbox 360, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S | Template:Centred | ||
| 2018 | Red Dead Redemption 2 | PlayStation 4, Stadia, Windows, Xbox One | Developed as part of Rockstar Games | Template:Centred |
CancelledEdit
- Gore!<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" />
- Cutiepoo<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" />
- Covert<ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" />
- Zenith<ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" />
- Kid Kirby<ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" />
- Attack!<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" />
- Clan Wars<ref name="Retro Gamer: From the Archives" /><ref name="Retro Gamer: N64 Years" />
- Grand Theft Auto: Online Crime World<ref name="Time Extension: Abandoned" />
- Z<ref name="Eurogamer: Vermeij" /><ref name="RPS: Vermeij" />
- Agent<ref name="Eurogamer: Vermeij" /><ref name="RPS: Vermeij" />
ReferencesEdit
External linksEdit
Template:Portal bar Template:Rockstar North Template:Rockstar Games Template:Take-Two Interactive Template:Nintendo developers Template:Authority control