Dardic languages

The Dardic languages (also Dardu or Pisaca),<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> or Hindu-Kush Indo-Aryan languages,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> are a group of several Indo-Aryan languages spoken in northern Pakistan, northwestern India and parts of northeastern Afghanistan.<ref name=":7" /> This region has sometimes been referred to as Dardistan.<ref>Template:Cite EncIranica</ref>

Rather than close linguistic or ethnic relationships, the original term Dardic was a geographical concept, denoting the northwesternmost group of Indo-Aryan languages.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite book</ref> There is no ethnic unity among the speakers of these languages nor can the languages be traced to a single ancestor.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":6">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="mockandoneil.com">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=":7">Template:Cite book</ref> After further research, the term "Eastern Dardic" is now a legitimate grouping of languages that excludes some languages in the Dardistan region that are now considered to be part of different language families.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The extinct Gandhari language, used by the Gandhara civilization, from circa 1500 BCE, was Dardic in nature.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Linguistic evidence has linked Gandhari with some living Dardic languages, particularly Torwali and other Kohistani languages.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> There is limited evidence that the Kohistani languages are descended from Gandhari.

History

Leitner's Dardistan, in its broadest sense, became the basis for the classification of the languages in the north-west of the Indo-Aryan linguistic area (which includes present-day eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir).<ref name="Bhan 59">Template:Cite book</ref> George Abraham Grierson, with scant data, borrowed the term and proposed an independent Dardic family within the Indo-Iranian languages.Template:Sfn However, Grierson's formulation of Dardic is now considered to be incorrect in its details, and has therefore been rendered obsolete by modern scholarship.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Georg Morgenstierne, who conducted an extensive fieldwork in the region during the early 20th century, revised Grierson's classification and came to the view that only the "Kafiri" (Nuristani) languages formed an independent branch of the Indo-Iranian languages separate from Indo-Aryan and Iranian families, and determined that the Dardic languages were unmistakably Indo-Aryan in character.<ref name=":4"/>

Dardic languages contain absolutely no features which cannot be derived from old [Indo-Aryan language]. They have simply retained a number of striking archasisms, which had already disappeared in most Prakrit dialects... There is not a single common feature distinguishing Dardic, as a whole, from the rest of the [Indo-Aryan] languages... Dardic is simply a convenient term to denote a bundle of aberrant [Indo-Aryan] hill-languages which, in their relative isolation, accented in many cases by the invasion of Pathan tribes, have been in varying degrees sheltered against the expand influence of [Indo-Aryan] Midland (Madhyadesha) innovations, being left free to develop on their own.Template:Sfn{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Blockquote with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | author | by | char | character | cite | class | content | multiline | personquoted | publication | quote | quotesource | quotetext | sign | source | style | text | title | ts }}Due to their geographic isolation, many Dardic languages have preserved archaisms and other features of Old Indo-Aryan. These features include three sibilants, several types of clusters of consonants, and archaic or antiquated vocabulary lost in other modern Indo-Aryan languages. Kalasha and Khowar are the most archaic of all modern Indo-Aryan languages, retaining a great part of Sanskrit case inflexion, and retaining many words in a nearly Sanskritic form.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref> For example driga "long" in Kalasha is nearly identical to dīrghá in Sanskrit<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref> and ašrú "tear" in Khowar is identical to the Sanskrit word.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref>

French Indologist Gérard Fussman points out that the term Dardic is geographic, not a linguistic expression.<ref name="Prakāśaṃ 2008 143">Template:Cite book</ref> Taken literally, it allows one to believe that all the languages spoken in Dardistan are Dardic.<ref name="Prakāśaṃ 2008 143"/> It also allows one to believe that all the people speaking Dardic languages are Dards and the area they live in is Dardistan.<ref name="Prakāśaṃ 2008 143"/> A term used by classical geographers to identify the area inhabited by an indefinite people, and used in Rajatarangini in reference to people outside Kashmir, has come to have ethnographic, geographic, and even political significance today.<ref name="mockandoneil.com"/>

Classification

George Morgenstierne's scheme corresponds to recent scholarly consensus.Template:Sfn As such, the historic Dardic's position as a legitimate genetic subfamily has been repeatedly called into question; it is widely acknowledged that the grouping is more geographical in nature, as opposed to linguistic.<ref name="jain-cardona-2007">Template:Cite encyclopaedia</ref> Indeed, Buddruss rejected the Dardic grouping entirely, and placed the languages within Central Indo-Aryan.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Other scholars, such as Strand<ref>Strand, Richard (2001), "The Tongues of Peristân"</ref> and Mock,<ref name="mockandoneil.com"/> have similarly voiced doubts in this regard.

However, Kachru contrasts "Midland languages" spoken in the plains, such as Punjabi and Urdu, with "Mountain languages", such as Dardic.<ref name=Kachru>Template:Citation</ref> Kogan has also suggested an 'East-Dardic' sub-family; comprising the 'Kashmiri', 'Kohistani' and 'Shina' groups.<ref name="jolr.ru">Kogan, Anton (2013), "https://jolr.ru/index.php?article=130"</ref><ref>Kogan, Anton (2015), "https://jolr.ru/index.php?article=157"</ref>

The case of Kashmiri is peculiar. Its Dardic features are close to Shina, often said to belong to an eastern Dardic language subfamily. Kachru notes that "the Kashmiri language used by Kashmiri Hindu Pandits has been powerfully influenced by Indian culture and literature, and the greater part of its vocabulary is now of Indian origin, and is allied to that of Sanskritic Indo-Aryan languages of northern India".<ref name=Kachru/>

While it is true that many Dardic languages have been influenced by non-Dardic languages, Dardic may have also influenced neighbouring Indo-Aryan lects in turn, such as Punjabi,<ref name="masica1993">Template:Harvnb: ... [Chaterji] agreed with Grierson in seeing Rajasthani influence on Pahari and 'Dardic' influence on (or under) the whole Northwestern group + Pahari. Template:Harvnb: Throughout the northwest, beginning with Sindhi and including 'Lahnda', Dardic, Romany and West Pahari, there has been a tendency to [the] transfer of 'r' from medial clusters to a position after the initial consonant.</ref> the Pahari languages, including the Central Pahari languages of Uttarakhand,<ref name="masica1993" /><ref name="biswas1985">Template:Citation</ref> and purportedly even further afield.<ref name="shanbhag1970">Template:Citation</ref><ref name="allana2002">Template:Citation</ref> Some linguists have posited that Dardic lects may have originally been spoken throughout a much larger region, stretching from the mouth of the Indus (in Sindh) northwards in an arc, and then eastwards through modern day Himachal Pradesh to Kumaon. However, this has not been conclusively established.<ref name="taraporewala1932">Template:Citation</ref><ref name="negi1993">Template:Citation</ref><ref name="chattopadhyaya1973">Template:Citation</ref>

Subdivisions

File:Map of the Dardic Languages.png

Map showcasing the areas where each Dardic language is spoken

File:Map of the Dardic Languages (Subdivisions shown).png

Map showcasing the areas where each Dardic language is spoken with subdivisions visible

Dardic languages have been organized into the following subfamilies:<ref name="munshi2008" /><ref name="jolr.ru"/>

• Eastern Dardic languages:
  • Kashmiri languages: Kashmiri, Poguli, Kishtwari;<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Rambani (disputed), Sarazi (disputed)
  • Shina languages: Shina, Brokskad, Kalkoti, Kohistani Shina, Kundal Shahi, Palula, Savi, Ushoji;
  • Kohistani languages: Maiya (Indus Kohistani), Bateri, Chilisso, Gawri, Gawro, Torwali, Mankiyali, Wotapuri-Katarqalai, Tirahi
• Chitrali languages: Kalasha (Urtsuniwar), Khowar
• Pashai languages: Pashai
• Kunar languages: Dameli, Gawar-Bati, Nangalami (Grangali), Shumashti

Characteristics

Loss of voiced aspiration

Virtually all Dardic languages have experienced a partial or complete loss of voiced aspirated consonants.<ref name="munshi2008">Template:Citation</ref><ref name="cardona2007">Template:Citation</ref> Khowar uses the word buum for 'earth' (Sanskrit: bhumi),^{{{#if:1|1|[1]}}} Pashai uses the word duum for 'smoke' (Urdu: dhuān, Sanskrit: dhūma) and Kashmiri uses the word dọd for 'milk' (Sanskrit: dugdha, Urdu: dūdh).<ref name="munshi2008" /><ref name="cardona2007" /> Tonality has developed in most (but not all) Dardic languages, such as Khowar and Pashai, as a compensation.<ref name="cardona2007" /> Punjabi and Western Pahari languages similarly lost aspiration but have virtually all developed tonality to partially compensate (e.g. Punjabi kár for 'house', compare with Urdu ghar).<ref name="munshi2008" />

Dardic metathesis and other changes

Both ancient and modern Dardic languages demonstrate a marked tendency towards metathesis where a "pre- or postconsonantal 'r' is shifted forward to a preceding syllable".<ref name="masica1993" /><ref name="lenz2003">Template:Citation</ref> This was seen in Ashokan rock edicts (erected 269 BCE to 231 BCE) in the Gandhara region, where Dardic dialects were and still are widespread. Examples include a tendency to spell the Classical Sanskrit words priyadarshi (one of the titles of Emperor Ashoka) as instead priyadrashi and dharma as dhrama.<ref name="lenz2003" /> Modern-day Kalasha uses the word driga 'long' (Sanskrit: dirgha).<ref name="lenz2003" /> Palula uses drubalu 'weak' (Sanskrit: durbala) and brhuj 'birch tree' (Sanskrit: bhurja).<ref name="lenz2003" /> Kashmiri uses drạ̄lid^{{{#if:2|2|[2]}}} 'impoverished' (Sanskrit: daridra) and krama 'work' or 'action' (Sanskrit: karma).<ref name="lenz2003" /> Template:ClarifyTemplate:Sfn<ref name="malik1995">Template:Citation</ref>

Dardic languages also show other consonantal changes. Kashmiri, for instance, has a marked tendency to shift k to ch and j to z (e.g. zon 'person' is cognate to Sanskrit jan 'person or living being' and Persian jān 'life').Template:Sfn

Verb position in Dardic

Unique among the Dardic languages, Kashmiri presents "verb second" as the normal grammatical form. This is similar to many Germanic languages, such as German and Dutch, as well as Uto-Aztecan O'odham and Northeast Caucasian Ingush. All other Dardic languages, and more generally within Indo-Iranian, follow the subject-object-verb (SOV) pattern.<ref name="anderson2005">Template:Citation</ref>

Language	First example sentence	Second example sentence
English (Germanic)	This is a horse.	We will go to Tokyo.
Kashmiri (Dardic)	Yi chu akh gur.	Ạs' gatshav Tokiyo.
Katë (Nuristani)	Ina ušpa âsa.	Imo Tokyo âćamo.
Pashto (Iranian)	Masculine: Dā yaw as day. / Feminine: Dā yawa aspa da.	Mūng/Mūẓ̌ ba Ṭokyo ta/tar lāṛšū.
Dari (Iranian)	In yak asb ast.	Mâ ba Tokyo xâhem raft.
Shina (Dardic)	Anu ek aspo han.	Be Tokyo et bujun.
Brokskat (Dardic)	Homo ek apʂak bait.	Ba Tokyo ray "byénaings".
Indus Kohistani (Dardic)	Shu ek gho thu.	Be Tokyo ye bay-tho.
Sanskrit (Indo-Aryan)	Ayám eka áśvaḥ ásti.	Vayám Tokyaṃ gámiṣyāmaḥ.
Sindhi (Indo-Aryan)	Heeu hiku ghoro aahe.	Asaan Tokyo veendaaseen.
Hindi-Urdu (Indo-Aryan)	4|[3]}}	Ham Tokyo jāenge.
Punjabi (Indo-Aryan)	Iha ikk kòṛa ai.	Asin Tokyo jāvange.
Mandeali (Indo-Aryan)	Ye ek ghōṛā hā.	Āsā Tokyo jāṇā.
Nepali (Indo-Aryan)	Yo euta ghoda ho.	Hami Tokyo jānechhaũ.
Garhwali (Indo-Aryan)	Yuu ek ghoda cha.	Ham Tokyo Jaula.
Kumaoni (Indo-Aryan)	Yo ek ghwad chhu.	Ham Tokyo jaunl.
Khowar (Dardic language)	Haya ei istore.	Ispa Tokyo ote besi.

See also

• Indo-Aryan languages
• Nuristani languages

Notes

1.^{{#if:| }} The Khowar word for 'earth' is more accurately represented, with tonality, as buúm rather than buum, where ú indicates a rising tone.

2.^{{#if:| }} The word drolid actually includes a Kashmiri half-vowel, which is difficult to render in the Urdu, Devnagri and Roman scripts alike. Sometimes, an umlaut is used when it occurs in conjunction with a vowel, so the word might be more accurately rendered as drölid.

3.^{{#if:| }} Sandhi rules in Sanskrit allow the combination of multiple neighboring words together into a single word: for instance, word-final aḥ plus word-initial a merge into o. In actual Sanskrit literature, with the effects of sandhi, this sentence would be expected to appear as Eṣá ékóśvósti. Also, word-final a is Sanskrit is a schwa, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (similar to the ending 'e' in the German name, Nietzsche), so e.g. the second word is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Pitch accent is indicated with an acute accent in the case of the older Vedic language, which was inherited from Proto-Indo-European.

4.^{{#if:| }} Hindi-Urdu, and other non-Dardic Indo-Aryan languages, also sometimes utilize a "verb second" order (similar to Kashmiri and English) for dramatic effect.<ref name="mgihu2001">Template:Citation</ref> Yeh ek ghoṛā hain is the normal conversational form in Hindi-Urdu. Yeh hain ek ghoṛā is also grammatically correct but indicates a dramatic revelation or other surprise. This dramatic form is often used in news headlines in Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi and other Indo-Aryan languages.

Sources

Academic literature from outside South Asia

• Morgenstierne, G. Irano-Dardica. Wiesbaden 1973;
• Morgenstierne, G. Die Stellung der Kafirsprachen. In Irano-Dardica, 327-343. Wiesbaden, Reichert 1975
• Decker, Kendall D. Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan, Volume 5. Languages of Chitral.

Academic literature from South Asia

• The Comparative study of Urdu and Khowar. Badshah Munir Bukhari National Language Authority Pakistan 2003. [No Reference]
• National Institute of Pakistani Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University & Summer Institute of Linguistics

Further reading

• Khan, Sawar, et al. "Ethnogenetic analysis reveals that Kohistanis of Pakistan were genetically linked to west Eurasians by a probable ancestral genepool from Eurasian steppe in the bronze age." Mitochondrion 47 (2019): 82-93.

Bibliography

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