Deportation

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File:Certificate (of Identity) of the Imperial Government of China - NARA - 294991.jpg

Certificate of identity of a deported individual, among the Chinese deportation records of the US District court, Los Angeles County, California

Template:Immigration sidebar Deportation is the expulsion of a person or group of people by a state from its sovereign territory. The actual definition changes depending on the place and context, and it also changes over time.<ref name="EMN">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="CMN">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="OPIL">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web

}}</ref><ref>Jean-Marie Henckaerts in his book Mass Expulsion in Modern International Law and Practice wrote:

As far as deportation is concerned, there is no general feature that clearly sets it apart from expulsion. Both term basically indicate the same phenomenon. ... The only difference seems to be one of preferential use, expulsion being more an international term while deportation is more used in municipal law. ... One study [discusses this distinction] but immediately adds that in modern practice both terms have become interchangeable.

See Template:Cite book</ref> A person who has been deported or is under sentence of deportation is called a deportee.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

DefinitionEdit

Definitions of deportation vary: some include "transfer beyond State borders" (distinguishing it from forcible transfer),<ref name="CMN"/> others consider it "the actual implementation of [an expulsion] order in cases where the person concerned does not follow it voluntarily".<ref name="OPIL"/> Others differentiate removal of legal immigrants (expulsion) from illegal immigrants (deportation).<ref name="COE">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Deportation in the most general sense, in accordance with International Organization for Migration,<ref name="IOM">Template:Cite journal</ref> treats expulsion and deportation as synonyms in the context of migration, adding:

"The terminology used at the domestic or international level on expulsion and deportation is not uniform but there is a clear tendency to use the term expulsion to refer to the legal order to leave the territory of a State, and removal or deportation to refer to the actual implementation of such order in cases where the person concerned does not follow it voluntarily."<ref>W. Kälin, "Aliens, Expulsion and Deportation" in R. Wolfrum (ed) Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (2014).Template:ISBN?Template:Page needed</ref>

According to the European Court of Human Rights, collective expulsion is any measure compelling non-nationals, as a group, to leave a country, except where such a measure is taken on the basis of a reasonable and objective examination of the particular case of each individual non-national of the group. Mass expulsion may also occur when members of an ethnic group are sent out of a state regardless of nationality. Collective expulsion, or expulsion en masse, is prohibited by several instruments of international law.Template:Sfn

HistoryEdit

AntiquityEdit

Expulsions occurred in ancient history. They were well-recorded particularly in ancient Mesopotamia.<ref name=iranica /> The kingdoms of Israel and Judah faced several forced expulsions, including deportations by the Neo-Assyrian Empire following the fall of Israel and during Sennacherib's campaign in the 8th century BC. Later, the Neo-Babylonian Empire deported much of the Judean population upon conquering Judah in 597 BC and 587 BC.<ref name=":022">Template:Cite book</ref>

Deportation in the Achaemenid EmpireEdit

Deportation was practiced as a policy toward rebellious people in Achaemenid Empire. The precise legal status of the deportees is unclear; but ill-treatment is not recorded. Instances include:<ref name=iranica>A. Shapur Shahbazi, Erich Kettenhofen, John R. Perry, VII/3, pp. 297–312, available online at {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} (accessed on 30 December 2012).

</ref>

Deportations in the Achaemenid Empire
Deported people	Deported to	Deporter
6,000 Egyptians (including the king Amyrtaeus and many artisans)	Susa	Cambyses II
Barcaeans	A village in Bactria	Darius I
Paeonians of Thrace	Sardes, Asia Minor (later returned)	Darius I
Milesians	Ampé, on the mouth of Tigris near the Persian Gulf	Darius I
Carians and Sitacemians	Babylonia
Eretrians	Ardericca in Susiana	Darius I
Beotians	Tigris region
Sidonian prisoners of war	Susa and Babylon	Artaxerxes III
Jews who supported the Sidonian revolt<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>	Hyrcania	Artaxerxes III

Deportation in the Parthian EmpireEdit

Unlike in the Achaemenid and Sassanian periods, records of deportation are rare during the Arsacid Parthian period. One notable example was the deportation of the Mards in Charax, near Rhages (Ray) by Phraates I. The 10,000 Roman prisoners of war after the Battle of Carrhae appear to have been deported to Alexandria Margiana (Merv) near the eastern border in 53 BC, who are said to married to local people. It is hypothesized that some of them founded the Chinese city of Li-Jien after becoming soldiers for the Hsiung-nu, but this is doubted.<ref name=iranica />

Hyrcanus II, the Jewish king of Judea (Jerusalem), was settled among the Jews of Babylon in Parthia after being taken as captive by the Parthian-Jewish forces in 40 BC.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Roman POWs in the Antony's Parthian War may have suffered deportation.<ref name=iranica />

Deportation in the Sasanian empireEdit

Deportation was widely used by the Sasanians, especially during the wars with the Romans.

During Shapur I's reign, the Romans (including Valerian) who were defeated at the Battle of Edessa were deported to Persis. Other destinations were Parthia, Khuzestan, and Asorestan. There were cities which were founded and were populated by Romans prisoners of war, including Shadh-Shapur (Dayr Mikhraq) in Meshan, Bishapur in Persis, Wuzurg-Shapur (Ukbara; Marw-Ḥābūr), and Gundeshapur. Agricultural land were also given to the deportees. These deportations initiated the spread Christianity in the Sassanian empire. In Rēw-Ardashīr (Rishahr; Yarānshahr), Persis, there was a church for the Romans and another one for Carmanians.<ref name=iranica /> Their hypothesized decisive role in the spread of Christianity in Persia and their major contribution to Persian economy has been recently criticized by Mosig-Walburg (2010).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In the mid-3rd century, Greek-speaking deportees from north-western Syria were settled in Kashkar, Mesopotamia.

After the Arab incursion into Persia during Shapur II's reign, he scattered the defeated Arab tribes by deporting them to other regions. Some were deported to Bahrain and Kirman, possibly to both populate these unattractive regions (due to their climate) and bringing the tribes under control.<ref name=iranica />

In 395 AD 18,000 Roman populations of Sophene, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Cappadocia were captured and deported by the "Huns". the prisoners were freed by the Persians as they reached Persia, and were settled in Slōk (Wēh Ardashīr) and Kōkbā (Kōkhē). The author of the text Liber Calipharum has praised the king Yazdegerd I (399–420) for his treatment of the deportees, who also allowed some to return.<ref name=iranica />

Major deportations occurred during the Anastasian War, including Kavad I's deportation of the populations of Theodosiopolis and Amida to Arrajan (Weh-az-Amid Kavad).<ref name=iranica />

Major deportations occurred during the campaigns of Khosrau I from the Roman cities of Sura, Beroea, Antioch, Apamea, Callinicum, and Batnai in Osrhoene, to Wēh-Antiyōk-Khosrow (also known as Rūmagān; in Arabic: al-Rūmiyya). The city was founded near Ctesiphon especially for them, and Khosrow reportedly "did everything in his power to make the residents want to stay".<ref name=iranica /> The number of the deportees is recorded to be 292,000 in another source.Template:Sfn Template:Page needed

Middle AgesEdit

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The Medieval European age was marked with several large religious deportations, including that of Christians, Jews and Muslims. For instance, the Almoravid deported Christians from Spain to Morocco, with mass deportations taking place in 1109, 1126, 1130 and 1138.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Modern deportationEdit

With the beginning of the Age of Discovery, deporting individuals to an overseas colony also became common practice. As early as the 16th century, degredados formed a substantial portion of early colonists in Portuguese empire.<ref>Russell-Wood (1998: p. 106–107)</ref> From 1717 onward Britain deported around 40,000<ref name="DH">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp British religious objectors and "criminals" to America before the practice ceased in 1776.<ref>Daniels, Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life, 2002</ref> Jailers sold the "criminals" to shipping contractors, who then sold them to plantation owners. The "criminals" worked for the plantation owner for the duration of their sentence.<ref name=DH/>Template:Rp After Britain lost control of the area which became the United States, Australia became the destination for "criminals" deported to British colonies. Britain transported more than 160,000<ref name=DH/>Template:Rp British "criminals" to the Australian colonies between 1787 and 1855.<ref>McCaffray and Melancon, p. 171.</ref>

Meanwhile, in Japan during Sakoku, all Portuguese and Spanish people were expelled from the country.

In the 18th century the Tipu Sultan, of Mysore, deported tens of thousands of civilians, from lands he had annexed, to serve as slave labour in other parts of his empire, for example the: Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In the late 19th century the United States of America began designating "desired" and "undesired" immigrants, leading to the birth of illegal immigration and subsequent deportation of immigrants when found in irregular situations.<ref name="Hist">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Starting with the Chinese Exclusion Act, the US government has since deported more than 55 million immigrants, the majority of whom came from Latin-American countries.<ref name="OXF">Template:Cite book</ref>

At the beginning of the 20th century the control of immigration began becoming common practice, with the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 in Australia,<ref name="Founding Docs">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the Aliens Act 1905 in the United Kingdom<ref>David Rosenberg, 'Immigration' on the Channel 4 website</ref> and the Continuous journey regulation of 1908 in Canada,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> elevating the deportation of "illegal" immigrants to a global scale.

In the meantime, deportation of "regular residents" also increased.

United StatesEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, more stringent enforcement of immigration laws were ordered by the executive branch of the U.S. government, which led to increased deportation and repatriation to Mexico. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, between 355,000 and 2 million Mexicans and Mexican Americans were deported or repatriated to Mexico, an estimated 40 to 60% of whom were U.S. citizens – overwhelmingly children. At least 82,000 Mexicans were formally deported between 1929 and 1935 by the government. Voluntary repatriations were more common than deportations.<ref name="gratton">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>McKay, "The Federal Deportation Campaign in Texas: Mexican Deportation from the Lower Rio Grande Valley During the Great Depression", Borderlands Journal, Fall 1981; Balderrama and Rodriguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s, 1995; Valenciana, "Unconstitutional Deportation of Mexican Americans During the 1930s: A Family History and Oral History", Multicultural Education, Spring 2006.</ref> In 1954, the executive branch of the U.S. government implemented Operation Wetback, a program created in response to public hysteria about immigration and immigrants from Mexico.<ref>See Albert G. Mata, "Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954 by Juan Ramon García", Contemporary Sociology, 1:5 (September 1983), p. 574 ("the widespread concern and hysteria about 'wetback inundation'..."); Bill Ong Hing, Defining America Through Immigration Policy, Temple University Press, 2004, p. 130. Template:ISBN ("While Operation Wetback temporarily relieved national hysteria, criticism of the Bracero program mounted."); David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity, University of California Press, 1995, p. 168. Template:ISBN ("The situation was further complicated by the government's active collusion in perpetuating the political powerlessness of ethnic Mexicans by condoning the use of Mexican labor while simultaneously whipping up anti-Mexican hysteria against wetbacks."); Ian F. Haney López, Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice, new ed., Belknap Press, 2004, p. 83. Template:ISBN ("... Operation Wetback revived Depression-era mass deportations. Responding to public hysteria about the 'invasion' of the United States by 'illegal aliens', this campaign targeted large Mexican communities such as East Los Angeles."); Jaime R. Aguila, "Book Reviews: Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s. By Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez", Journal of San Diego History, 52:3–4 (Summer–Fall 2006), p. 197. ("Anti-immigrant hysteria contributed to the implementation of Operation Wetback in the mid 1950s....")</ref> Operation Wetback led to the deportation of nearly 1.3 million Mexicans from the United States.<ref>García, Juan Ramon. Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1980. Template:ISBN</ref><ref>Hing, Bill Ong. Defining America Through Immigration Policy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004. Template:ISBN</ref>

Nazi GermanyEdit

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File:Stroop Report - Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 09.jpg

People being deported during the Warsaw Ghetto uprising

Nazi policies deported homosexuals, Jews,<ref>Deportation to the Death Camps, Yad Vashem</ref><ref>Database of deportations during the Holocaust – The International Institute for Holocaust Research, Yad Vashem</ref> Poles, and Romani from their established places of residence to Nazi concentration camps or extermination camps set up at a considerable distance from their original residences. During the Holocaust, the Nazis made heavy use of euphemisms, where "deportation" frequently meant the victims were subsequently killed, as opposed to simply being relocated.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Soviet UnionEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin carried out forced mass transfers of some 6 million people during the 1930s and 1940s, resulting in millions of deaths. As many as 110 separate deportations have been catalogued, included the targeting of at least 13 distinct ethnicities and 8 entire nations. Many historians have described Soviet deportations as ethnic cleansing, crimes against humanity, and/or genocide.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Ukrainer">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Independent State of CroatiaEdit

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An estimated 120,000 Serbs were deported from the Independent State of Croatia to German-occupied Serbia, and 300,000 fled by 1943.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

ContemporaryEdit

All countries reserve the right to deport persons without right of abode, even those who are longtime residents or possess permanent residency. In general, foreigners who have committed serious crimes, entered the country illegally, overstayed or broken the conditions of their visa, or otherwise lost their legal status to remain in the country may be administratively removed or deported.<ref>Henckaerts, Mass Expulsion in Modern International Law and Practice, 1995, p. 5; Forsythe and Lawson, Encyclopedia of Human Rights, 1996, pp. 53–54.</ref>

Since the 1980s, the world also saw the development of practices of externalization/"offshoring immigrants", currently being used by Australia, Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and the European Union.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Some of the countries in the Persian Gulf have even used this to deport their own citizens, paying the Comoros to give them passports and accept them.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The period after the fall of the Iron Curtain showed increased deportation and readmission agreements in parts of Europe.<ref>Zetter, Roger, et al. "An assessment of the impact of asylum policies in Europe, 1990–2000." Home Office Online Report 17.03 (2003).</ref>

During its invasion of Ukraine, the Russian Federation has perpetrated mass deportations of Ukrainian citizens to Russia and occupied territories. While independent numbers are difficult to come by, and depending on the degree of Russian coercion or force required to meet the definition of "deported", reported numbers range from tens of thousands to 4.5 million deportees.<ref name="Ukrainer"/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Dominican Republic deported more than 250,000 Haitians and Dominicans of Haitian descent to Haiti in 2023.<ref name="u222">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Deportation of undocumented Afghans from Pakistan since 2023.

Noteworthy deporteesEdit

Template:See also Alexander Berkman, Emma Goldman, C.L.R. James, Claudia Jones, Fritz Julius Kuhn, Lucky Luciano, and Anna Sage were all deported from the United States by being arrested and brought to the federal immigration control station on Ellis Island in New York Harbor and, from there, forcibly removed from the United States on ships.

OppositionEdit

File:Anarchist anti deporation protest.jpg

Anarchists protesting against deportations

Many criticize deportations as inhumane, as well as questioning their effectiveness. Some are completely opposed towards any deportations, while others state it is inhumane to take somebody to a foreign land without their consent.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In popular cultureEdit

In literature, deportation appears as an overriding theme in the 1935 novel, Strange Passage by Theodore D. Irwin. Films depicting or dealing with fictional cases of deportation are many and varied. Among them are Ellis Island (1936), Exile Express (1939), Five Came Back (1939), Deported (1950), and Gambling House (1951). More recently, Shottas (2002) treated the issue of U.S. deportation to the Caribbean post-1997.

ReferencesEdit

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Bibliography Template:Refbegin

Aguila, Jaime R. "Book Reviews: Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s. By Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez". Journal of San Diego History. 52:3–4 (Summer–Fall 2006).
Balderrama, Francisco and Rodriguez, Raymond. Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995. Template:ISBN.
Campana, Aurélie. "Case Study: The Massive Deportation of the Chechen People: How and why Chechens were Deported". Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. November 2007. Accessed August 11, 2008.
Template:Cite book
Conquest, Robert. The Nation Killers. New York: Macmillan, 1970. Template:ISBN
Daniels, Roger. Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life. New York: HarperCollins, 2002. Template:ISBN
Dillman, Caroline Matheny. The Roswell Mills and A Civil War Tragedy: Excerpts From Days Gone by in Alpharetta and Roswell, Georgia. Vol. 1. Roswell, Ga.: Chattahoochee Press, 1996. Template:ISBN
Fischer, Ruth and Leggett, John C. Stalin and German Communism: A Study in the Origins of the State Party. Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2006. Template:ISBN
Forsythe, David P. and Lawson, Edward. Encyclopedia of Human Rights. 2d ed. Florence, Ky.: Taylor & Francis, 1996.
Fragomen, Austin T. and Bell, Steven C. Immigration Fundamentals: A Guide to Law and Practice. New York: Practising Law Institute, 1996. Template:ISBN
García, Juan Ramon. Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1980. Template:ISBN.
Gibney, Matthew J. and Hansen, Randall. "Deportation and the Liberal State: The Involuntary Return of Asylum Seekers and Unlawful Migrants in Canada, the UK, and Germany". New Issues in Refugee Research: Working Paper Series No. 77. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2003.
Gutiérrez, David G. Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. Template:ISBN
Template:Cite book
Hing, Bill Ong. Defining America Through Immigration Policy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004. Template:ISBN
Hitt, Michael D. Charged with Treason: The Ordeal of 400 Mill Workers During Military Operations in Roswell, Georgia, 1864–1865. Monroe, N.Y.: Library Research Associates, 1992. Template:ISBN
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"Lewis Attacks Deportation of Leaders by West Virginia Authorities". The New York Times. July 17, 1921.
Lindquist, John H. and Fraser, James. "A Sociological Interpretation of the Bisbee Deportation". Pacific Historical Review. 37:4 (November 1968).
López, Ian F. Haney. Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice. New ed. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2004. Template:ISBN
Martin, MaryJoy. The Corpse On Boomerang Road: Telluride's War on Labor, 1899–1908. Lake City, Colo.: Western Reflections Publishing Co., 2004. Template:ISBN
Mata, Albert G. "Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954 by Juan Ramon García". Contemporary Sociology. 1:5 (September 1983)
Mawdsley, Evan. The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union 1929–1953. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 2003. Template:ISBN
McCaffray, Susan Purves and Melancon, Michael S. Russia in the European Context, 1789–1914: A Member of the Family. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
McKay, Robert R. "The Federal Deportation Campaign in Texas: Mexican Deportation from the Lower Rio Grande Valley during the Great Depression". Borderlands Journal. (Fall 1981).
Naimark, Norman M. Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001. Template:ISBN
Nurbiyev, Aslan. "Relocation of Chechen 'Genocide' Memorial Opens Wounds". Agence France Press. June 4, 2008.
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President's Mediation Commission. Report on the Bisbee Deportations Made by the President's Mediation Commission to the President of the United States. Washington, D.C.: President's Mediation Commission, November 6, 1917.
Silverberg, Louis G. "Citizens' Committees: Their Role in Industrial Conflict". Public Opinion Quarterly. 5:1 (March 1941).
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Suggs, Jr., George G. Colorado's War on Militant Unionism: James H. Peabody and the Western Federation of Miners. 2nd ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. Template:ISBN
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Valenciana, Christine. "Unconstitutional Deportation of Mexican Americans During the 1930s: A Family History and Oral History". Multicultural Education. Spring 2006.

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External linksEdit

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