Dietary Reference Intake

Template:Short description Template:For The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) is a system of nutrition recommendations from the National Academy of Medicine (NAM)Template:Efn of the National Academies (United States).<ref name="HealthCanada">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It was introduced in 1997 in order to broaden the existing guidelines known as Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs, see below). The DRI values differ from those used in nutrition labeling on food and dietary supplement products in the U.S. and Canada, which uses Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs) and Daily Values (%DV) which were based on outdated RDAs from 1968 but were updated as of 2016.<ref name="FedReg">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

ParametersEdit

File:Dietary Reference Intakes.svg

Dietary Reference Intakes

DRI provides several different types of reference values:<ref name="HealthCanada"/>

Estimated Average Requirements (EAR), are expected to satisfy the needs of 50% of the people in that age group based on a review of the scientific literature.
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), the daily dietary intake level of a nutrient considered sufficient by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine to meet the requirements of 97.5% of healthy individuals in each life stage and sex group. The definition implies that the intake level would cause a harmful nutrient deficiency in just 2.5%. It is calculated based on the EAR and is usually approximately 20% higher than the EAR (See Calculating the RDA).
Adequate Intake (AI), where no RDA has been established, but the amount established is somewhat less firmly believed to be adequate for everyone in the demographic group.
Tolerable upper intake levels (UL), to caution against excessive intake of nutrients (like vitamin A and selenium) that can be harmful in large amounts. This is the highest level of Template:Em daily nutrient consumption that is considered to be safe for, and cause no side effects in, 97.5% of healthy individuals in each life stage and sex group. The definition implies that the intake level would cause a harmful nutrient excess in just 2.5%. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has also established ULs which do not always agree with U.S. ULs. For example, adult zinc UL is 40 mg in the U.S. and 25 mg in EFSA.<ref name=EFSA>Template:Citation</ref>
Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR), are a range of intake specified as a percentage of total energy intake. Used for sources of energy, such as fats and carbohydrates.

DRIs are used by both the United States and Canada, and are intended for the general public and health professionals. Applications include:

Composition of diets for schools, prisons, hospitals or nursing homes
Industries developing new foods and dietary supplements
Healthcare policy makers and public health officials

Other countriesEdit

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL define the same as in the United States, although numerical values may differ.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=EFSA />

Australia and New Zealand refer to the collective set of information as Nutrient Reference Values, with Recommended Dietary Intake (RDI) instead of RDA, but EAR, AI and UL defined the same as in the United States and Canada, although numerical values may differ.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

HistoryEdit

The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) was developed during World War II by Lydia J. Roberts, Hazel Stiebeling, and Helen S. Mitchell, all part of a committee established by the United States National Academy of Sciences in order to investigate issues of nutrition that might "affect national defense".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The committee was renamed the Food and Nutrition Board in 1941, after which they began to deliberate on a set of recommendations of a standard daily allowance for each type of nutrient. The standards would be used for nutrition recommendations for the armed forces, for civilians, and for overseas population who might need food relief. Roberts, Stiebeling, and Mitchell surveyed all available data, created a tentative set of allowances for "energy and eight nutrients", and submitted them to experts for review (Nestle, 35).

The final set of guidelines, called RDAs for Recommended Dietary Allowances, were accepted in 1941. The allowances were meant to provide superior nutrition for civilians and military personnel, so they included a "margin of safety". Because of food rationing during the war, the food guides created by government agencies to direct citizens' nutritional intake also took food availability into account.Template:Cn

The Food and Nutrition Board subsequently revised the RDAs every five to ten years. In the early 1950s, United States Department of Agriculture nutritionists made a new set of guidelines that also included the number of servings of each food group in order to make it easier for people to receive their RDAs of each nutrient.Template:Cn

The DRI was introduced in 1997 in order to broaden the existing system of RDAs. DRIs were published over the period 1998 to 2001. In 2011, revised DRIs were published for calcium and vitamin D.<ref name="vitD-Calcium2">Template:Cite book</ref> Additionally, revised DRIs were published for potassium and sodium in 2019. <ref name="sodium-potassium-update">Template:Cite book</ref> The DRI for energy was updated in 2023. <ref name="energy-update">Template:Cite book</ref> None of the other DRIs have been revised since first published 1998 to 2001.

Current recommendations for United States and CanadaEdit

Highest EARs and RDA/AIs and lowest ULs for people ages nine years and older, except pregnant or lactating women. ULs for younger children may be lower than RDA/AIs for older people. Females need more iron than males and generally need more nutrients when pregnant or lactating.<ref name="Nutrient Recommendations: Dietary Reference Intakes">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Vitamins and cholineEdit

Nutrient	Highest Template:Abbr	Males	Females	Lowest Template:Abbr	Unit
Nutrient	Highest Template:Abbr	Highest Template:Abbr/Template:Abbr		Lowest Template:Abbr	Unit	Top common sources, 100 grams, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)<ref name=USDA>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Vitamin A	630	900	700Template:Efn	1700Template:Efn	μg	cod liver oil, liver, dehydrated red sweet peppers, veal, dehydrated carrots
Thiamin (B₁)	1.0	1.2	1.1Template:Efn	ND	mg	fortified breakfast cereals, energy bars, and baby food products
Riboflavin (B₂)	1.1	1.3	1.1Template:Efn	ND	mg	fortified food products, lamb liver, spirulina
Niacin (B₃)	12	16	14Template:Efn	20Template:Efn	mg	fortified food products, baker's yeast, rice bran, instant coffee, fortified beverages
Pantothenic acid (B₅)	NE	5	5Template:Efn	ND	mg	fortified food and beverage products, dried shiitake mushrooms, beef liver, rice bran
Vitamin B₆	1.4	1.7	1.5Template:Efn	60	mg	fortified food and beverage products, rice bran, fortified margarines, ground sage
Biotin (B₇)	NE	30	30Template:Efn	ND	μg	organ meats, eggs, fish, meat, seeds, nuts<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Folate (B₉)	330	400	400Template:Efn	600Template:Efn	μg	baker's yeast, fortified food and beverage products, poultry liver
Cobalamin (B₁₂)	2.0	2.4	2.4Template:Efn	ND	μg	shellfish, beef, animal liver, fortified food and beverage products
Vitamin C	75	90	75Template:Efn	1200	mg	fortified beverages, dried sweet peppers, raw acerola, dried chives and coriander, rose hips, fortified food products
Vitamin D	10	20	20	100	μg	cod liver oil, mushrooms (if exposed to ultraviolet light), halibut, mackerel, canned sockeye salmon
α-tocopherol (Vitamin E)	12	15	15Template:Efn	600	mg	wheat germ oil, fortified food and beverage products, hazelnut oil, fortified peanut butter, chili powder
Vitamin K	NE	120	90	ND	μg	dried spices, fresh parsley, cooked and raw kale, chard, other leaf vegetables
Choline	NE	550	425Template:Efn	2000	mg	egg yolk, organ meats from beef and pork, soybean oil, fish roe

MineralsEdit

Nutrient	Highest Template:Abbr	Highest Template:Abbr/Template:Abbr		Lowest Template:Abbr	Unit	Top common sources, 100 grams, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)<ref name=USDA/>
Nutrient	Highest Template:Abbr	Males	Females	Lowest Template:Abbr	Unit
Calcium	1100	1300	1300	2000	mg	fortified cereals, beverages, tofu, energy bars, and baby foods, dried basil and other spices, dried whey, cheese, milk powder
Chloride	NE	2300	2300	3400	mg	table salt
Chromium	NE	35	25Template:Efn	ND	μg	broccoli, turkey ham, dried apricots, tuna, pineapple, grape juice<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Copper	700	900	900Template:Efn	5000	μg	animal liver, seaweed products, dried shiitake mushrooms, oysters, sesame seeds, cocoa powder, cashews, sunflower seeds
Fluoride	NE	4	3	10Template:Efn	mg	public drinking water, where fluoridation is performed or natural fluorides are present, tea, raisins
Iodine	95	150	150Template:Efn	600	μg	iodized salt, kelp, cod
Iron	8.1	11	18Template:Efn	40	mg	dried thyme and other spices, fortified foods, including baby foods, animal organ meats
Magnesium	350	420	360Template:Efn	350Template:Efn	mg	crude rice bran, cottonseed flour, hemp seeds, dried spices, cocoa powder, fortified beverages
Manganese	NE	2.3	1.8Template:Efn	6Template:Efn	mg	fortified beverages and infant formulas, ground cloves and other dried spices, chickpeas, fortified breakfast cereals
Molybdenum	34	45	45Template:Efn	1100	μg	legumes, grain products, nuts and seeds<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Phosphorus	1055	1250	1250	3000	mg	baking powder, instant pudding, cottonseed meal, hemp seeds, fortified beverages, dried whey
Potassium	NE	3400	2600Template:Efn	ND	mg	Potatoes, bananas, kiwifruit, prunes, raisins, sunflower seeds, watermelon, avocado, spinach, baking powder, dried parsley and other spices, cocoa solids, instant tea and instant coffee, dried tomatoes, dried sweet peppers, soy sauce
Selenium	45	55	55Template:Efn	280Template:Efn	μg	Brazil nuts and mixed nuts, animal kidneys, dried eggs, oysters, dried cod
Sodium	NE	1500	1500	1800Template:Efn	mg	table salt, baking soda, soup bouillon cube, seasoning mixes, onion soup mix, fish sauce
Zinc	9.4	11	9Template:Efn	40Template:Efn	mg	oysters, fortified breakfast cereals, baby foods, beverages, peanut butter, and energy bars, wheat germ

NE: EARs have not yet been established or not yet evaluated; ND: ULs could not be determined, and it is recommended that intake from these nutrients be from food only, to prevent adverse effects. Template:Notelist-lr

It is also recommended that the following substances not be added to food or dietary supplements. Research has been conducted into adverse effects, but was not conclusive in many cases:

Substance	Lowest UL	units per day
Arsenic	ND	—
Boron	11	mg
Nickel	0.6	mg
Silicon	ND	—
Vanadium	1.8	mg

MacronutrientsEdit

RDA/AI is shown below for males and females aged 19–50 years.<ref name="Nutrient Recommendations: Dietary Reference Intakes"/><ref name=IOM>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Substance	Amount (males)	Amount (females)	Top Sources in Common Measures<ref name=USDA/>
Water Template:Efn-lr	3.7 L/day	2.7 L/day	water, watermelon, iceberg lettuce, fruits and vegetables
Carbohydrates	45–65% of caloriesTemplate:Efn-lr		milk, grains, fruits, vegetables
Carbohydrates	130 g/dayTemplate:Efn-lr		milk, grains, fruits, vegetables
Protein	10–35% of caloriesTemplate:Efn-lr		Nuts, seeds legumes (pulses: beans, peas, lentils). Animal sources: Meats, fish, milk, cheeses, eggs
Protein	56 g/dayTemplate:Efn-lr	46 g/dayTemplate:Efn-lr
Fiber	14 g/(1000 kcal)		barley, bulgur, rolled oats, legumes, psyllium, nuts, beans, apples
Fiber	38 g/dayTemplate:Efn-lr	25 g/dayTemplate:Efn-lr
Fat	20–35% of caloriesTemplate:Efn-lr		Vegetable oils, butter, lard, nuts, seeds, fatty meat cuts, egg yolk, cheeses
Linoleic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid (polyunsaturated) (A type of fat)	17 g/day	12 g/day	Vegetable oils (Hemp oil (seed), sunflower oil (seed), corn oil (maize), canola oil)
alpha-Linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid (polyunsaturated) (A type of fat)	1.6 g/day	1.1 g/day	Vegetable oils: (Linseed oil (flax seed), hemp oil (seed), canola oil), chia seed, hemp seed, walnut, soybeans
Trans fatty acids (A type of fat)	As low as possible<ref>As of 2018 partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs), a specific source of TFAs, although the major one, are no longer Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS).</ref>		Partially hydrogenated fat, margarine
Saturated fatty acids (A type of fat)	As low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet		Animal fat (dairy products), fully hydrogenated fat, coconut oil (meat), cocoa butter, palm oil
Added sugar (A type of carbohydrate)	Less than 10% of calories<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation		CitationClass=web }}</ref>	non-natural sweet foods: Candy, sweetened beverages, cookies, cakes, jams, syrup, many processed foods

Template:Notelist-lr

Calculating the RDAEdit

The equations used to calculate the RDA are as follows:

"If the standard deviation (SD) of the EAR is available and the requirement for the nutrient is symmetrically distributed, the RDA is set of two SDs above the EAR:

If data about variability in requirements are insufficient to calculate an SD, a coefficient of variation (CV) for the EAR of 10 percent is assumed, unless available data indicate a greater variation in requirements. If 10 percent is assumed to be the CV, then twice that amount when added to the EAR is defined as equal to the RDA. The resulting equation for the RDA is then

This level of intake statistically represents 97.5 percent of the requirements of the population."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Standard of evidenceEdit

In September 2007, the Institute of Medicine held a workshop entitled "The Development of DRIs 1994–2004: Lessons Learned and New Challenges".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> At that meeting, several speakers stated that the current Dietary Recommended Intakes (DRI's) were largely based upon the very lowest rank in the quality of evidence pyramid, that is, opinion, rather than the highest level – randomized controlled clinical trials. Speakers called for a higher standard of evidence to be utilized when making dietary recommendations. The only DRIs to have been revised since that meeting until 2011 are vitamin D and calcium.<ref name="vitD-Calcium2"/>

AdherenceEdit

Percent of U.S. population ages 2+ meeting EAR or USDA healthy eating patterns in 2004<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Nutrient	Adherence
Protein	88.9%
Vitamin A	46.0%
Vitamin C	51.0%
Vitamin E	13.6%
Thiamin	81.6%
Riboflavin	89.1%
Niacin	87.2%
Vitamin B₆	73.9%
Folate	59.6%
Vitamin B₁₂	79.7%
Phosphorus	87.2%
Magnesium	43.0%
Iron	89.5%
Selenium	91.5%
Zinc	70.8%
Copper	84.2%
Calcium	30.9%
Fiber	8.0%
Potassium	7.6%
% calories from total fat ≤ 35%	59.4%
% calories from saturated fat < 10%	55.8%
Cholesterol intake < 300 mg	10.4%
Sodium intake ≤ 2,300 mg	29.8%

Dietary Reference Intake

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