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The Doge of Venice (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell)<ref>Template:Dictionary.com</ref>Template:Efn – in Italian, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:IPAc-itTemplate:Sndwas the doge or highest role of authority within the Republic of Venice (697–1797).<ref>Template:Cite map</ref> The word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} derives from the Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, meaning 'leader', and Venetian Italian dialect for 'duke', highest official of the republic of Venice for over 1,000 years.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> In standard Italian, the cognate is duce (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell, Template:IPAc-it), one of National Fascist Party leader Benito Mussolini's titles.
Originally referring to any military leader, it became in the Late Roman Empire the title for a leader of an expeditionary force formed by detachments ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) from the frontier army ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), separate from, but subject to, the governor of a province, authorized to conduct operations beyond provincial boundaries.
The Doge of Venice acted as both the head of state and head of the Venetian oligarchy. Doges were elected for life through a complex voting process.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
HistoryEdit
Byzantine eraEdit
The first Doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was elected in 698 and served until 717.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> Anafesto was not a typical Venetian Doge, as he was a subject of Byzantium.<ref name=":0" /> While he is considered to be the first Doge of Venice, Venetians were not truly free from the Byzantine Empire until 742.
While not known for certain, historians widely accept that Anafesto was born in Oderzo, a city in modern-day Veneto.<ref name=":0" /> Historians are unsure of how and where Anafesto died. According to some, he was the victim of a conspiracy hatched by the nobles of Malamocco in 717.<ref name=":0" /> Others suggest that he died in the ducal residence of Eraclea.<ref name=":0" /> Another theory suggests he died in battle in 728, after being promoted to exarch of Ravenna.<ref name=":0" />
Not much is known about the second Doge of Venice, Marcello Tegalliano, who ruled from 717 to 726.<ref name=":0" /> At the time of his appointment, the duchy was in turmoil as a result of growing tensions between pro-Lombard bishop of Aquileia and the pro-Byzantine leaders of Grado.<ref name=":0" />
In the latter half of the eighth century, Mauritius Galba was elected duke and took the title {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'master of the soldiers, consul and imperial duke of the province of Venice'.Template:Sfn Doge Justinian Partecipacius (d. 829) used the title {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'imperial hypatos and humble duke of Venice'.<ref>J. B. Bury, A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (A.D. 802–867) (Macmillan, 1912), p. 327.</ref>
These early titles combined Byzantine honorifics and explicit reference to Venice's subordinate status.Template:Sfn Titles like Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration were granted by the emperor to the recipient for life but were not inherent in the office ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Transliteration), but the title Template:Transliteration belonged to the office ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Transliteration). Thus, into the eleventh century the Venetian doges held titles typical of Byzantine rulers in outlying regions, such as Sardinia.<ref name=Pertusi>Agostino Pertusi, "L'Impero bizantino e l'evolvere dei suoi interessi nell'alto Adriatico", in Le origini di Venezia (Florence: Sansoni, 1964), pp. 57–93, at 75–76.</ref> As late as 1202, the Doge Enrico Dandolo was styled Template:Transliteration, a title granted to him by Alexios III Angelos.Template:Sfn
As Byzantine power declined in the region in the late ninth century, reference to Venice as a province disappeared in the titulature of the doges. The simple titles {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (duke of the Venetians) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (duke of the Venetias) predominate in the tenth century.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The plural reflects the doge's rule of several federated townships and clans.<ref name=Hazlitt>William Carew Hazlitt, The Venetian Republic: Its Rise, Its Growth, and Its Fall, 421–1797, Vol. 2 (A. and C. Black, 1900), p. 416.</ref>
Dukes of Dalmatia and CroatiaEdit
After defeating Croatia and conquering some Dalmatian territory in 1000, Doge Pietro II Orseolo adopted the title {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'Duke of Dalmatia',<ref>Thomas F. Madden, Enrico Dandolo and the Rise of Venice (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), p. 5.</ref> or in its fuller form, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'Duke of the Venetians and Dalmatians'.Template:Sfn
This title was recognised by the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II in 1002.<ref>Horatio F. Brown, "The Venetians and the Venetian Quarter in Constantinople to the Close of the Twelfth Century", The Journal of Hellenic Studies 40, 1 (1920), p. 70.</ref> After a Venetian request, it was confirmed by the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos in 1082. In a chrysobull dated that year, Alexios granted the Venetian doge the imperial title of Template:Transliteration, and recognised him as imperial Template:Transliteration over the Dalmatian theme.<ref name=MaddenJMH>Thomas F. Madden, "The Chrysobull of Alexius I Comnenus to the Venetians: The Date and the Debate", Journal of Medieval History 28 (2002), pp. 23–41.</ref>
The expression {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('by the grace of God') was adopted consistently by the Venetian chancery only in the course of the eleventh century.<ref>Maurizio Viroli, As If God Existed: Religion and Liberty in the History of Italy (Princeton University Press, 2012), p. 31.</ref> An early example, however, can be found in 827–29, during the joint reign of Justinian and his brother John I: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'by divine grace dukes of the Venetian provinces'.<ref name=Hazlitt/>
Between 1091 and 1102, the King of Hungary acquired the Croatian kingdom in a personal union. In these circumstances, the Venetians appealed to the Byzantine emperor for recognition of their title to Croatia (like Dalmatia, a former Byzantine subject). Perhaps as early as the reign of Vital Falier (d. 1095), and certainly by that of Vital Michiel (d. 1102), the title {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} had been added, giving the full dogal title four parts: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'Duke of Venice, Dalmatia and Croatia and Imperial Protosebastos'.<ref name=MaddenJMH/> In the fourteenth century, the doges periodically objected to the use of Dalmatia and Croatia in the Hungarian king's titulature, regardless of their own territorial rights or claims.Template:Sfn Later medieval chronicles mistakenly attributed the acquisition of the Croatian title to Doge Ordelaf Falier (d. 1117).<ref>Suzanne Mariko Miller, Venice in the East Adriatic: Experiences and Experiments in Colonial Rule in Dalmatia and Istria (c. 1150–1358), PhD diss. (Stanford University, 2007), p. 129.</ref>
According to the Venetiarum Historia, written around 1350, Doge Domenico Morosini added {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('and lord of Istria') to his title after forcing Pula on Istria to submit in 1150. Only one charter, however, actually uses a title similar to this: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (1153).<ref name=Lazzarini>Vittorio Lazzarini, "I titoli dei Dogi de Venezia", Nuovo archivio veneto, Ser. NS 5 (1903), pp. 271–313.</ref>
Post-1204Edit
The next major change in the dogal title came with the Fourth Crusade, which conquered the Byzantine Empire (1204). The Byzantine honorific Template:Transliteration had by this time been dropped and was replaced by a reference to Venice's allotment in the partitioning of the Byzantine Empire. The new full title was 'By the grace of God duke of the Venices, Dalmatia and Croatia and lord of a fourth part and a half [three eighths] of the whole Empire of Romania' ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} [or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}] {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} [or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}] {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).Template:Sfn
Although traditionally ascribed by later medieval chroniclers to Doge Enrico Dandolo, who led the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade, and hence known as the arma Dandola,Template:Sfn in reality the title of 'lord of a fourth part and a half of the Empire of Romania' was first claimed by the ambitious Venetian podestà of Constantinople, Marino Zeno, in his capacity as the Doge's representative in the 'Empire of Romania', and it was only subsequently adopted as part of the dogal title by Doge Pietro Ziani.Template:Sfn
The Greek chronicler George Akropolites used the term Template:Transliteration to translate {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'lord', which has led to some confusion with the Byzantine court title of despot. The latter title was never claimed by the doges, but was sometimes used by the Venetian podestàs of Constantinople in their capacity as the doge's representatives.Template:Sfn
The title of 'lord of a fourth part and a half of the whole Empire of Romania' was used in official titulature thereafter, with the exception, after the re-establishment in 1261 of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty, of Venice's relations with the Byzantine emperors, when that part of the dogal titulature was substituted by 'and lord of the lands and islands subject to his dogate' ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) or similar formulations.Template:Sfn
In a similar manner, the disputes between Venice and Hungary over Dalmatia and Croatia led to the Kings of Hungary addressing the Doges of Venice without that part of their title, while in turn the Venetians tried to force the Hungarian kings to drop any title laying claim to the two provinces.Template:Sfn
This dispute ended in the Treaty of Zadar of 1358, where Venice renounced its claims to Dalmatia; a special article in the treaty removed Dalmatia and Croatia from the doge's title. The resulting title was {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'Duke of the Venices and the rest'.Template:Sfn Even though Dalmatia would be regained by Venice in the early 15th century, the title was never modified, and remained in use until the end of the Republic.Template:Sfn Even when the body of such documents was written in Italian, the title and dating clause were in Latin.<ref>Colin Macfarquhar and George Gleig, eds., "Ducal" Template:Webarchive, Encyclopædia Britannica, 3rd ed., vol. 6, part 1 (Edinburg, 1797), p. 164.</ref>
Selection of the dogeEdit
The doge's prerogatives were not defined with precision. While the position was entrusted to members of the inner circle of powerful Venetian families, after several doges had associated a son with themselves in the ducal office, this tendency toward a hereditary monarchy was checked by a law that decreed that no doge had the right to associate any member of his family with himself in his office, nor to name his successor.<ref name="EB1911">{{#if: |
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After 1172 the election of the doge was entrusted to a committee of forty, who were chosen by four men selected from the Great Council of Venice, which was itself nominated annually by twelve persons. After a deadlocked tie at the election of 1229, the number of electors was increased from forty to forty-one.<ref name="EB1911"/>
New regulations for the elections of the doge introduced in 1268 remained in force until the end of the republic in 1797. Their intention was to minimize the influence of individual great families, and this was effected by a complex electoral machinery. Thirty members of the Great Council, chosen by lot, were reduced by lot to nine; the nine chose forty and the forty were reduced by lot to twelve, who chose twenty-five. The twenty-five were reduced by lot to nine, and the nine elected forty-five. These forty-five were once more reduced by lot to eleven, and the eleven finally chose the forty-one who elected the doge.<ref name="EB1911"/>
Election required at least twenty-five votes out of forty-one, nine votes out of eleven or twelve, or seven votes out of nine electors.<ref name="dogeelection">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Efn
Before taking the oath of investiture, the doge-elect was presented to the concio with the words: "This is your doge, if it please you."<ref name="EB1911"/> This ceremonial gesture signified the assent of the Venetian people. This practice came to an end with the abolition of the concio in 1423; after the election of Francesco Foscari, he was presented with the unconditional pronouncement – "Your doge".<ref>Horatio Forbes Brown, Venice: an historical sketch of the republic (1893), p. 273</ref>
RegulationsEdit
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While doges had great temporal power at first, after 1268, the doge was constantly under strict surveillance: he had to wait for other officials to be present before opening dispatches from foreign powers; he was not allowed to possess any property in a foreign land.<ref name="EB1911"/>
The doges normally ruled for life (although a few were forcibly removed from office). After a doge's death, a commission of inquisitori passed judgment upon his acts, and his estate was liable to be fined for any discovered malfeasance. The official income of the doge was never large, and from early times holders of the office remained engaged in trading ventures.<ref name="EB1911"/> These ventures kept them in touch with the requirements of the grandi.
From 7 July 1268, during a vacancy in the office of doge, the state was headed ex officio, with the style vicedoge, by the senior consigliere ducale (ducal counsellor).
Ritual roleEdit
One of the ceremonial duties of the doge was to celebrate the symbolic marriage of Venice with the sea. This was done by casting a ring from the state barge, the Bucentaur, into the Adriatic. In its earlier form this ceremony was instituted to commemorate the conquest of Dalmatia by Doge Pietro II Orseolo in 1000, and was celebrated on Ascension Day. It took its later and more magnificent form after the visit to Venice in 1177 of Pope Alexander III and the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I. On state occasions the Doge was surrounded by an increasing amount of ceremony, and in international relations he had the status of a sovereign prince.<ref name="EB1911"/>
The doge took part in ducal processions, which started in the Piazza San Marco. The doge would appear in the center of the procession, preceded by civil servants ranked in ascending order of prestige and followed by noble magistrates ranked in descending order of status. Francesco Sansovino described such a procession in minute detail in 1581. His description is confirmed and complemented by Cesare Vecellio's 1586 painting of a ducal procession in the Piazza San Marco.
RegaliaEdit
From the 14th century onward, the ceremonial crown and well-known symbol of the doge of Venice was called corno ducale, a unique ducal hat. It was a stiff horn-like bonnet, which was made of gemmed brocade or cloth-of-gold and worn over the camauro. This was a fine linen cap with a structured peak reminiscent of the Phrygian cap, a classical symbol of liberty. This ceremonial cap may have been ultimately based on the white crown of Upper Egypt.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Every Easter Monday the doge headed a procession from San Marco to the convent of San Zaccaria, where the abbess presented him a new camauro crafted by the nuns.
The Doge's official costume also included golden robes, slippers and a sceptre for ceremonial duties.
Death and burialEdit
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Until the 15th century, the funeral service for a deceased doge would normally be held at St Mark's Basilica, where some early holders of this office are also buried. After the 15th century, however, the funerals of all later doges were held at the Basilica di San Giovanni e Paolo. Twenty-five doges are buried there.
Decline of the officeEdit
As the oligarchical element in the constitution developed, the more important functions of the ducal office were assigned to other officials, or to administrative boards. The doge's role became a mostly representative position. The last doge was Ludovico Manin, who abdicated in 1797, when Venice passed under the power of Napoleon's France following his conquest of the city.<ref name="EB1911"/>
While Venice would shortly declare itself again as a republic, attempting to resist annexation by Austria, it would never revive the title of doge. It used various titles, including dictator, and collective heads of state to govern the jurisdiction, including a triumvirate.
See alsoEdit
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
BibliographyEdit
- Apostolo Zeno, Compendio della storia Veneta, self-published, Venezia, 1847.
- Italian States to 1860 P - V
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite journal
- Template:Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations
- A dramatic account of the ceremonies and procedures that accompanied the election of a doge is to be found in the Estoires de Venise of Martino da Canal (an English translation was published by Laura K. Morreale, Padua, UniPress 2009).