Dynamics (music)

In music, the dynamics of a piece are the variation in loudness between notes or phrases. Dynamics are indicated by specific musical notation, often in some detail. However, dynamics markings require interpretation by the performer depending on the musical context: a specific marking may correspond to a different volume between pieces or even sections of one piece. The execution of dynamics also extends beyond loudness to include changes in timbre and sometimes tempo rubato.

Purpose and interpretation

Template:More citations needed section Dynamics are one of the expressive elements of music. Used effectively, dynamics help musicians sustain variety and interest in a musical performance, and communicate a particular emotional state or feeling.

Dynamic markings are always relative.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Template:Serif (piano - "soft") never indicates a precise level of loudness; it merely indicates that music in a passage so marked should be considerably quieter than Template:Serif (forte - "loud"). There are many factors affecting the interpretation of a dynamic marking. For instance, the middle of a musical phrase will normally be played louder than the beginning or end, to ensure the phrase is properly shaped, even where a passage is marked Template:Serif throughout. Similarly, in multi-part music, some voices will naturally be played louder than others, for instance, to emphasize the melody and the bass line, even if a whole passage is marked at one dynamic level. Some instruments are naturally louder than others – for instance, a tuba playing mezzo-piano will likely be louder than a guitar playing forte, while a high-pitched instrument like the piccolo playing in its upper register can sound loud even when its actual decibel level is lower than that of other instruments.

Dynamic markings

Scale of dynamic markings<ref>Read, Gardner (1969/1979). Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice, p.250. 2nd edition. Crescendo Publishing, part of Taplinger Publishing. Template:ISBN.</ref>

Name	Letters	Level
Template:Right	Template:Serif	very very loud
Template:Right	Template:Serif	very loud
Template:Right	Template:Serif	loud
Template:Right	Template:Serif	moderately loud
Template:Right	Template:Serif	moderately quiet
Template:Right	Template:Serif	quiet
Template:Right	Template:Serif	very quiet
Template:Right	Template:Serif	very very quiet

The two basic dynamic indications in music are:

• Template:Serif or piano, meaning "soft or quiet".<ref name="harvard">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="vtp">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

• Template:Serif or forte, meaning "loud or strong".<ref name="harvard" /><ref name="vtf">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

More subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by:

• Template:Serif, standing for mezzo-piano, meaning "moderately quiet".
• Template:Serif, standing for mezzo-forte, meaning "moderately loud".<ref name="vtd">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

• Template:Serif, standing for più piano and meaning "quieter".
• Template:Serif, standing for più forte and meaning "louder".

Use of up to three consecutive Template:Serifs or Template:Serifs is also common:

• Template:Serif, standing for pianissimo and meaning "very quiet".
• Template:Serif, standing for fortissimo and meaning "very loud".
• Template:Serif ("triple piano"), standing for pianississimo or piano pianissimo and meaning "very very quiet".
• Template:Serif ("triple forte"), standing for fortississimo or forte fortissimo and meaning "very very loud".<ref name="vtd" />

There are additional special markings that are not very common:

• Template:Serif or Template:Serif, standing for sforzando and meaning "suddenly very loud", which only applies to a given beat.
• Template:Serif or Template:Serif, standing for rinforzando and meaning "reinforced", which refers to a sudden increase in volume that only applies to a given phrase.
• Template:Serif or Template:Serif, standing for niente and meaning "nothing", which refers to silence; it is generally used in combination with other markings for special effect.

Changes

Three Italian words are used to show gradual changes in volume:

• crescendo (abbreviated cresc.) translates as "increasing" (literally "growing")
• decrescendo (abbreviated to decresc.) translates as "decreasing".
• diminuendo (abbreviated dim.) translates as "diminishing".

Dynamic changes can be indicated by angled symbols. A crescendo symbol consists of two lines that open to the right (File:Music-crescendo.svg); a decrescendo symbol starts open on the left and closes toward the right (File:Music-diminuendo.svg). These symbols are sometimes referred to as hairpins or wedges.<ref>Kennedy, Michael and Bourne, Joyce: The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music (1996), entry "Hairpins".</ref> The following notation indicates music starting moderately strong, then becoming gradually stronger and then gradually quieter:

Hairpins are typically positioned below the staff (or between the two staves in a grand staff), though they may appear above, especially in vocal music or when a single performer plays multiple melody lines. They denote dynamic changes over a short duration (up to a few bars), whereas cresc., decresc., and dim. signify more gradual changes. Word directions can be extended with dashes to indicate the temporal span of the change, which can extend across multiple pages. The term morendo ("dying") may also denote a gradual reduction in both dynamics and tempo.

For pronounced dynamic shifts, cresc. molto and dim. molto are commonly used, with molto meaning "much". Conversely, poco cresc. and poco dim. indicate gentler changes, with "poco" translating to a little, or alternatively poco a poco meaning "little by little".

Sudden dynamic changes are often indicated by prefixing or suffixing subito (meaning "suddenly") to the new dynamic notation. Subito piano (abbreviated as Template:Serif or Template:Serif) ("suddenly soft") implies a quick, almost abrupt reduction in volume to around the Template:Serif range, often employed to subvert listener expectations, signaling a more intimate expression. Likewise, subito can mark sudden increases in volume, as in Template:Serif or Template:Serif) ("suddenly loud").

Template:Anchor Accented notes are generally marked with an accent sign > placed above or below the note, emphasizing the attack relative to the prevailing dynamics. A sharper and briefer emphasis is denoted with a marcato mark ^ above the note. If a specific emphasis is required, variations of forzando/forzato, or fortepiano can be used.

forzando/forzato signifies a forceful accent, abbreviated as Template:Serif. To enhance the effect, subito often precedes it as Template:Serif (subito forzato/forzando, sforzando/sforzato). The interpretation and execution of these markings are at the performer's discretion, with forzato/forzando typically seen as a variation of marcato and subito forzando/forzato as a marcato with added tenuto.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The fortepiano notation Template:Serif denotes a forte followed immediately by piano. Contrastingly, Template:Serif abbreviates poco forte, translating to "a little loud", but according to Brahms, implies a forte character with a piano sound, although rarely used due to potential confusion with pianoforte.<ref>An Enigmatic Marking Explained, by Jeffrey Solow, Violoncello Society Newsletter, Spring 2000</ref>

Messa di voce is a singing technique and musical ornament on a single pitch while executing a crescendo and diminuendo.

Extreme dynamic markings

While the typical range of dynamic markings is from Template:Serif to Template:Serif, some pieces use additional markings of further emphasis. Extreme dynamic markings imply either a very large dynamic range or very small differences of loudness within a normal range. This kind of usage is most common in orchestral works from the late 1800s onward. Generally, these markings are supported by the orchestration of the work, with heavy forte passages brought to life by having many loud instruments like brass and percussion playing at once.

• In Holst's The Planets, Template:Serif occurs twice in "Mars" and once in "Uranus", often punctuated by organ.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
• In Stravinsky's The Firebird Suite, Template:Serif is marked for the strings and woodwinds at the end of the Finale.
• Tchaikovsky marks a bassoon solo Template:Serif (6 Template:Serifs) in his Pathétique Symphony<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and uses Template:Serif in passages of his 1812 Overture<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and his Fifth Symphony.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>See imslp- p.88, Andante non tanto.</ref>
• The baritone passage "Era la notte" from Verdi's opera Otello uses Template:Serif, though the same spot is marked Template:Serif in the full score.<ref>(1965). The Musical Times, Vol. 106. Novello.</ref>
• Sergei Rachmaninoff uses Template:Serif in his [[Prelude in C-sharp minor (Rachmaninoff)|Prelude in CTemplate:Music, Op. 3 No. 2]].<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
• Gustav Mahler, in the third movement of his Seventh Symphony, gives the celli and basses a marking of Template:Serif (5 Template:Serifs), along with a footnote directing 'pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood'.Template:Efn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
• On the other extreme, Carl Nielsen, in the second movement of his Fifth Symphony, marked a passage for woodwinds a diminuendo to Template:Serif (5 Template:Serifs).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>΄
• Brian Ferneyhough, in his Lemma-Icon-Epigram, uses Template:Serif (6 Template:Serifs).<ref name=":17">Template:Cite book</ref>
• Giuseppe Verdi, in Scene 5 (Act II from his opera Otello), uses Template:Serif (7 Template:Serifs).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

• György Ligeti uses extreme dynamics in his music: the Cello Concerto begins with a passage marked Template:Serif (8 Template:Serifs),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> in his Piano Études Étude No. 9 (Vertige) ends with a diminuendo to Template:Serif (8 Template:Serifs),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Cbignore</ref> while Étude No. 13 (L'Escalier du Diable) contains a passage marked Template:Serif (6 Template:Serifs) that progresses to a Template:Serif (8 Template:Serifs)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Cbignore</ref> and his opera Le Grand Macabre has Template:Serif (10 Template:Serifs) with a stroke of the hammer.

History

On Music, one of the Moralia attributed to the philosopher Plutarch in the first century AD, suggests that ancient Greek musical performance included dynamic transitions – though dynamics receive far less attention in the text than does rhythm or harmony.

The Renaissance composer Giovanni Gabrieli was one of the first to indicate dynamics in music notation. However, much of the use of dynamics in early Baroque music remained implicit and was achieved through a practice called raddoppio ("doubling") and later ripieno ("filling"), which consisted of creating a contrast between a small number of elements and then a larger number of elements (usually in a ratio of 2:1 or more) to increase the mass of sound. This practice was pivotal to the structuring of instrumental forms such as the concerto grosso and the solo concerto, where a few or one instrument, supported by harmonic basso continuo instruments (organ, lute, theorbo, harpsichord, lirone, and low register strings, such as cello or viola da gamba, often used together) variously alternate or join to create greater contrasts. This practice is usually called terraced dynamics, i.e. the alternation of piano and forte.

Later baroque musicians, such as Antonio Vivaldi, tended to use more varied dynamics. J.S. Bach used some dynamic terms, including forte, piano, più piano, and pianissimo (although written out as full words), and in some cases it may be that Template:Serif was considered to mean pianissimo in this period. In 1752, Johann Joachim Quantz wrote that "Light and shade must be constantly introduced ... by the incessant interchange of loud and soft."<ref>Donington, Robert: Baroque Music (1982) WW Norton, 1982. Template:ISBN. Page 33.</ref> In addition to this, the harpsichord in fact becomes louder or softer depending on the thickness of the musical texture (four notes are louder than two).

In the Romantic period, composers greatly expanded the vocabulary for describing dynamic changes in their scores. Where Haydn and Mozart specified six levels (Template:Serif to Template:Serif), Beethoven used also Template:Serif and Template:Serif (the latter less frequently), and Brahms used a range of terms to describe the dynamics he wanted. In the slow movement of Brahms's trio for violin, horn and piano (Opus 40), he uses the expressions Template:Serif, molto piano, and quasi niente to express different qualities of quiet. Many Romantic and later composers added Template:Serif and Template:Serif, making for a total of ten levels between Template:Serif and Template:Serif.

An example of how effective contrasting dynamics can be may be found in the overture to Smetana’s opera The Bartered Bride. The fast scurrying quavers played pianissimo by the second violins form a sharply differentiated background to the incisive thematic statement played fortissimo by the firsts.

File:Smetana Bartered Bride overture, bars 30-36.wav

Smetana Bartered Bride overture, bars 30-36.

File:Smetana Bartered Bride overture, bars 30-36.png

Smetana Bartered Bride overture, bars 30-36.

Interpretation by notation programs

File:Dynamic's Note Velocity.svg

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In some music notation programs, there are default MIDI key velocity values associated with these indications, but more sophisticated programs allow users to change these as needed. These defaults are listed in the following table for some applications, including Apple's Logic Pro 9 (2009–2013), Avid's Sibelius 5 (2007–2009), musescore.org's MuseScore 3.0 (2019), MakeMusic's Finale 26 (2018-2021), and Musitek's SmartScore X2 Pro (2016) and 64 Pro. (2021). MIDI specifies the range of key velocities as an integer between 0 and 127:

Symbols	Template:Serif	Template:Serif	Template:Serif	Template:Serif	Template:Serif	Template:Serif	Template:Serif	Template:Serif	Template:Serif	Template:Serif	Template:Serif
citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>			16	32	48	64	80	96	112	127
Sibelius 5 dynamics<ref>Spreadbury, Daniel; Eastwood, Michael; Finn, Ben; and Finn, Jonathan (March 2008). Sibelius 5 Reference. Edition 5.2. Sibelius Software.</ref>			20	39	61	71	84	98	113	127
citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Failed verification	5	10	16	33	49	64	80	96	112	126	127
MakeMusic Finale dynamics<ref>MakeMusic, Inc. Finale (Version 26), Expression Dialog Box, Note Expression Selection. Finale (26.1.0.397) Software.</ref>		10	23	36	49	62	75	88	101	114	127
SmartScore X2 dynamics<ref>Musitek Corp. Smartscore X2 Software.</ref>		29	38	46	55	63	72	80	89	97	106
SmartScore 64 dynamics<ref>Musitek Corp. Smartscore 64 Software.</ref>		30	40	50	60	70	80	90	100	110	120

The velocity effect on volume depends on the particular instrument. For instance, a grand piano has a much greater volume range than a recorder.

Relation to audio dynamics

The introduction of modern recording techniques has provided alternative ways to control the dynamics of music. Dynamic range compression is used to control the dynamic range of a recording, or a single instrument. This can affect loudness variations, both at the micro-<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and macro scale.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In many contexts, the meaning of the term dynamics is therefore not immediately clear. To distinguish between the different aspects of dynamics, the term performed dynamics can be used to refer to the aspects of music dynamics that is controlled exclusively by the performer.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

See also

• Accent (music)
• Glossary of musical terminology

References

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