Emigration

Template:Short description Template:Distinguish Template:Redirect Template:Redirect Emigration is the act of leaving a resident country or place of residence<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> with the intent to settle elsewhere (to permanently leave a country).<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Conversely, immigration describes the movement of people into one country from another (to permanently move to a country).<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> A migrant emigrates from their old country, and immigrates to their new country. Thus, both emigration and immigration describe migration, but from different countries' perspectives.

File:Affiche émigration JP au BR-déb. XXe s..jpg

Japanese government poster in the early 20th century promoting emigration to South America, with Brazil highlighted

Demographers examine push and pull factors for people to be pushed out of one place and attracted to another. There can be a desire to escape negative circumstances such as shortages of land or jobs, or unfair treatment. People can be pulled to the opportunities available elsewhere. Fleeing from oppressive conditions, being a refugee and seeking asylum to get refugee status in a foreign country, may lead to permanent emigration.

Forced displacement refers to groups that are forced to abandon their native country, such as by enforced population transfer or the threat of ethnic cleansing. Refugees and asylum seekers in this sense are the most marginalized extreme cases of migration,<ref name="Szkudlarek 461–484">Template:Cite journal</ref> facing multiple hurdles in their journey and efforts to integrate into the new settings.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Scholars in this sense have called for cross-sector engagement from businesses, non-governmental organizations, educational institutions, and other stakeholders within the receiving communities.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Citation</ref>

HistoryEdit

Template:See Patterns of emigration have been shaped by numerous economic, social, and political changes throughout the world in the last few hundred years. For instance, millions of individuals fled poverty, violence, and political turmoil in Europe to settle in the Americas and Oceania during the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Likewise, millions left South China in the Chinese diaspora during the 19th and early 20th centuries.

File:Aquitaniaposter.PNG

Poster showing a cross-section of the Cunard Line's emigrant liner RMS Aquitania, launched in 1913.

"Push" and "pull" factorsEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Demographers distinguish factors at the origin that push people out, versus those at the destination that pull them in.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Motives to migrate can be either incentives attracting people away, known as pull factors, or circumstances encouraging a person to leave. Diversity of push and pull factors inform management scholarship in their efforts to understand migrant movement.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref name="Szkudlarek 461–484"/>

Push factorsEdit

Poor living conditions or overcrowding
Lack of employment or entrepreneurial opportunities
Lack of educational opportunities
Threat of arrest or punishment
Persecution or intolerance based on race, religion, gender or sexual orientation
Political corruption, lack of government transparency or freedom of speech
Inability to find a spouse for marriage
Lack of freedom to choose religion, or to choose no religion
Resource depletion, scarcity or austerity
Military draft, warfare or terrorism
Expulsion by armed force or coercion
Recession or economic collapse
Famine or drought
Cultural fights with other cultural groups

Pull factorsEdit

Higher quality of life, economic growth or lower cost of living
Encouragement to join relatives or fellow countrymen; chain migration
Quick wealth (as in a gold rush)
More job opportunities or promise of higher pay
Prosperity or economic surplus
Educational opportunity (including university for adults or K-12 for children)
Prepaid travel (as from relatives)
Building a new nation (historically)
Building specific cultural or religious communities
Political freedom
Cultural opportunities
Greater opportunity to find a spouse
Favorable climate
Ease of crossing boundaries
Reduced tariff

CriticismEdit

Some scholars criticize the "push-pull" approach to understanding international migration.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Regarding lists of positive or negative factors about a place, Jose C. Moya writes "one could easily compile similar lists for periods and places where no migration took place."<ref>Moya, J. C. (1998). Cousins and strangers. Spanish immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850–1930. Berkeley, University of California Press. p.14</ref>

Emigration waves by countryEdit

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Jews escaping from German-occupied Europe
Yerida (Jewish emigration from Israel)
Swedish emigration to the United States

StatisticsEdit

File:Net Migration Rate, Population Reference Bureau, Current.svg

Net migration rates per 1,000 people (2023, Population Reference Bureau)

Unlike immigration, in many countries few if any records have been recordedTemplate:Efn or maintained in regard to persons leaving a country either on a temporary or permanent basis. Therefore, estimates on emigration must be derived from secondary sources such as immigration records of the receiving country or records from other administrative agencies.<ref name=canada>Template:Cite book</ref>

The rate of emigration has continued to grow, reaching 280 million in 2017.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In Armenia, for example, the migration is calculated by counting people arriving or leaving the country via airplane, train, railway or other means of transportation. Here, the emigration index is high: 1.5% of population leaves the country annually.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In fact, it is one of the countries, where emigration has become a part of culture since 20th century. For example, between 1990 and 2005 approximately 700,000–1,300,000 Armenians left the country. The highly rising numbers of emigration are a direct response to socio-political and economic areas of the country. The internal migration (migration in country) is big (28.7%), while international migration is 71.3% of the total migration by people aging 15 and above. It is important to understand the reasons for both types of migration and the availability of the options. For example, in Armenia, everything is localized in the capital city Yerevan, thus, internal migration is from the villages and small cities to the biggest city of the country. The reason for the migration can be work or study. International migration follows the same reasoning of migration: work or study. The main destinations for it are Russia, France and US.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Emigration restrictionsEdit

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File:Berlin Wall Potsdamer Platz November 1975 looking east.jpg

East Germany erected the Berlin Wall to prevent emigration westward.

Some countries restrict the ability of their citizens to emigrate to other countries. After 1668, the Qing Emperor banned Han Chinese migration to Manchuria. In 1681, the emperor ordered construction of the Willow Palisade, a barrier beyond which the Chinese were prohibited from encroaching on Manchu and Mongol lands.<ref>Elliott, Mark C. "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies." Journal of Asian Studies 59, no. 3 (2000): 603–46.</ref>

The Soviet Socialist Republics of the later Soviet Union began such restrictions in 1918, with laws and borders tightening until even illegal emigration was nearly impossible by 1928.<ref name="dowty69">Template:Harvnb</ref> To strengthen this, they set up internal passport controls and individual city Propiska ("place of residence") permits, along with internal freedom of movement restrictions often called the 101st kilometre, rules which greatly restricted mobility within even small areas.<ref name="dowty70">Template:Harvnb</ref>

At the end of World War II in 1945, the Soviet Union occupied several Central European countries, together called the Eastern Bloc, with the majority of those living in the newly acquired areas aspiring to independence and wanted the Soviets to leave.<ref name="thackeray188">Template:Harvnb</ref> Before 1950, over 15 million people emigrated from the Soviet-occupied eastern European countries and immigrated into the west in the five years immediately following World War II.<ref name="bocker207">Template:Harvnb</ref> By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to controlling national movement was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc.<ref name="dowty114">Template:Harvnb</ref> Restrictions implemented in the Eastern Bloc stopped most east–west migration, with only 13.3 million migrations westward between 1950 and 1990.<ref name="bocker209">Template:Harvnb</ref> However, hundreds of thousands of East Germans annually immigrated to West Germany through a "loophole" in the system that existed between East and West Berlin, where the four occupying World War II powers governed movement.<ref name="harrison99">Template:Harvnb</ref> The emigration resulted in massive "brain drain" from East Germany to West Germany of younger educated professionals, such that nearly 20% of East Germany's population had migrated to West Germany by 1961.<ref name="dowty122">Template:Harvnb</ref> In 1961, East Germany erected a barbed-wire barrier that would eventually be expanded through construction into the Berlin Wall, effectively closing the loophole.<ref name="pearson75">Template:Harvnb</ref> In 1989, the Berlin Wall fell, followed by German reunification and within two years the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to controlling international movement was also emulated by China, Mongolia, and North Korea.<ref name="dowty114"/> North Korea still tightly restricts emigration, and maintains one of the strictest emigration bans in the world,<ref name="dowty208">Template:Harvnb</ref> although some North Koreans still manage to illegally emigrate to China.<ref>Kleinschmidt, Harald, Migration, Regional Integration and Human Security: The Formation and Maintenance of Transnational Spaces, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006,Template:ISBN, page 110</ref> Other countries with tight emigration restrictions at one time or another included Angola, Egypt,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Ethiopia, Mozambique, Somalia, Afghanistan, Burma, Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia from 1975 to 1979), Laos, North Vietnam, Iraq, South Yemen and Cuba.<ref name="dowty186">Template:Harvnb</ref>

NotesEdit

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ReferencesEdit

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External linksEdit

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