Fijian language

Template:Short description Template:Distinguish {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other

File:WIKITONGUES- Mila speaking Fijian.webm

A Fijian speaker, recorded in Fiji.

Fijian ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) or iTaukei<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> is an Austronesian language of the Malayo-Polynesian family spoken by some 350,000–450,000 ethnic Fijians as a native language. The 2013 Constitution established Fijian as an official language of Fiji, along with English and Fiji Hindi and there is discussion about establishing it as the "national language". Fijian is a VOS language.<ref>Template:WALS</ref>

Standard Fijian is based on the Bau dialect, which is an East Fijian language. A pidginized form is used by many Indo-Fijians and Chinese on the islands, while Pidgin Hindustani is used by many rural ethnic Fijians and Chinese in areas dominated by Indo-Fijians.

History

History of the language

The Fijian language was introduced to Fiji Template:Circa 3500 years ago by the islands' first settlers. For millennia, it was the only spoken language in Fiji. In 1835, Methodist missionaries from Australia worked in Fiji to develop a written form of the language. By 1840, they had already developed a writing system, and had published various books on the different dialects of the language. After the independence of Fiji in 1970, Fijian has been used in radio, television, books, and periodicals, and has been taught in schools.

National language debate

In May and June 2005, several prominent Fijians sought to promote the status of the Fijian language. Fiji had no official language before the 1997 Constitution, which made the Fijian language co-official with English and Fiji Hindi; however, it was not required to be taught in schools. The minister of education, Ro Teimumu Kepa, has also supported appeals to Chairman of the Great Council of Chiefs Ratu Ovini Bokini. Similar appeals have been made by Misiwini Qereqeretabua, Director of the Institute of Language and Culture, and by Apolonia Tamata, a linguistics professor at the University of the South Pacific in Suva. They have stated that recognition of the Fijian language is essential for the basic identity of the nation and acts as a unifying factor for the multicultural society of Fiji.

Mahendra Chaudhry, the leader of the Fiji Labour Party, also supported the cause to make Fijian a national language and a compulsory subject in schools with the same status as Fiji Hindi, a position echoed by Krishna Vilas of the National Reconciliation Committee.

Since 2013, when a new constitution was adopted, Fijian is established as an official language of Fiji alongside Fiji Hindi and English.

Phonology

The consonant phonemes of Fijian are as shown in the following table:

Fijian consonant phonemes

		Labial	Coronal	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link
Plosive	voiceless	(Template:IPA link)	Template:IPA link	(Template:IPA link)	Template:IPA link	(Template:IPA link)
	prenasalized	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	(Template:IPA link)	Template:IPA link
Fricative	voiceless	(Template:IPA link)	Template:IPA link		(Template:IPA link)	(Template:IPA link)
	voiced	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Trill	plain		Template:IPA link
	prenasalized		Template:IPA link
Approximant		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link

The consonant written Template:Angle bracket has been described as a prenasalized trill Template:IPAblink or trilled affricate Template:IPAblink. However, it is only rarely pronounced with a trilled release; the primary feature distinguishing it from Template:Angle bracket is that it is postalveolar, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, rather than dental/alveolar.<ref>Template:SOWL The authors use the transcription Template:Angle bracket, where the sub-dot is their convention for a postalveolar stop that is not prototypically retroflex.</ref>

The sounds Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink occur only in loanwords from other languages. The sounds Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink only occur for speakers from certain regions of the country.

The sounds Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink occur as allophones of Template:IPAslink and Template:IPAslink.

The glottal stop Template:IPAslink occurs in the Boumaa Fijian used to illustrate this article, but is not found in the standard language. It descends from an earlier Template:IPAslink sound in most Fijian dialects.

Note the difference in place of articulation between the voiced-voiceless fricative pairs: bilabial Template:IPAblink vs. labiodental Template:IPAblink, and dental Template:IPAblink vs. alveolar Template:IPAblink.

The vowel phonemes are:

Monophthongs

	Front		Central		Back
	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Mid	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Open			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link

Falling diphthongs

		Second component
		Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink
First component	Template:IPAslink	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
	Template:IPAslink	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
	Template:IPAslink	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link

In addition, there is the rising diphthong Template:IPAslink.

Syllables can consist of a consonant followed by a vowel (CV) or a single vowel (V).Template:Sfn Word stress is based on moras: a short vowel is one mora, diphthongs and long vowels are two morae. Primary stress is on the penultimate mora of the phonological word. That is, if the last syllable of a word is short, then the penultimate syllable will be stressed, while if the last syllable contains either a long vowel or a diphthong, then it receives primary stress. Stress is not lexical and can shift when suffixes are attached to the root. Examples:

• Stress on the penultimate syllable (final short vowel): {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Gloss;
• Stress on the final syllable (diphthong): {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Gloss (the stress extends over the whole diphthong).
• Stress shift: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Gloss → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:GlossTemplate:Sfn

Orthography

The Fijian alphabet is based on the Latin script and consists of the following letters. There is almost a one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes.

Alphabet

Capital	Lowercase	IPA	Others
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink~Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink~Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink~Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink	lang}} Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink~Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink~Template:IPAblink
lang}}	lang}}	Template:IPAblink

In the 1980s, scholars compiling a dictionary added several more consonants and a few consonant clusters to the alphabet. These newcomers were necessary to handle words entering Standard Fijian from not only English, but from other Fijian languages or dialects as well. These are the most important additions: Template:Angbr Template:IPAblink, as in Template:Angbr Template:Gloss and Template:Angbr Template:IPAblink, as in Template:Angbr Template:Gloss.Template:Sfn

For phonological reasons Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr are pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} rather than {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (cf. Japanese chi kana, or in standard Brazilian Portuguese). Hence, the Fijian name for Fiji, Template:Angbr, from an allophonic pronunciation of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

In addition, the digraph Template:Angbr stands for retroflex Template:IPAblink, or a prenasalized trill {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in careful pronunciation, or more commonly for some people and in some dialects.

The vowel letters Template:Angbr have roughly their IPA values, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The vowel length contrast is not usually indicated in writing, except in dictionaries and textbooks for learners of the language, where it is indicated by a macron over the vowel in question; Dixon, in the work cited below, doubles all long vowels in his spelling system. Diphthongs are Template:Angbr, pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

Morpho-syntax

Note: the examples in this section are from Bouma dialect. It is not Standard Fijian, which is based on the Bauan dialect.

Negation

In order to negate a phrase or clause in Fijian, certain verbs are used to create this distinction. These verbs of negation are known as semi-auxiliary verbs. Semi-auxiliary verbs fulfil the functions of main verbs (in terms of syntactic form and pattern) and have a NP or complement clause as their subjectTemplate:Sfn (complements clauses within negation are introduced by relators {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (which refers to an event, which is generally a non-specific unit) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (which refers is translated as "should", referring to the event within the complement clause should occur)).Template:Sfn Within a complement clause, the semi-auxiliary verb qualifies the predicate.Template:Sfn

Semi-auxiliary verbs

One semi-auxiliary verb used to express negation in Fijian is {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. This semi-auxiliary can be translated as either "there are no-" or "it is not the case that", depending on the subject it relates to.Template:Sfn In terms of numerical expression, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is also used to express the quantity "none".Template:Sfn This negator can be used in almost all situations, with the exception of the imperative or in a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (classifier) clauses.Template:Sfn When {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} takes a NP as its subject, the meaning "there are no-" is assumed:

Predicate clauses can also be negated in Fijian with the semi-auxiliary verb {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. This can only be completed when the predicate is placed into a complement clause.Template:Sfn The subject of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} must also be {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, which introduces the complement clause. It is then translated as "it is not the case that (predicate clause)".Template:Sfn An example of this construction is shown here:

Hence, the only way a verb (which is generally the head of a predicate phrase) can be negated in Fijian is when it forms part of the [{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} VERB] construction.Template:Sfn However, in Fijian the head of a predicate phrase may belong to almost any word class. If another word (e.g. a noun) is used, the structure of negation alters.Template:Sfn This distinction can be shown through diverse examples of the negating NPs in Fijian. The below examples show the difference between a noun as the head of a NP and a noun as the head of a predicate in a complement clause, within negation:

NP as subject of {{#invoke

Lang|lang}}

{{#invoke

Lang|lang}} as the subject of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

Additionally, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} can also work with relator {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} which introduces interrogative clauses.Template:Sfn This combination creates a form translatable as "or not":

Another common negator is {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, which is translatable as "don't, not".Template:Sfn Differently to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, this semi-auxiliary verb is used for imperatives and in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} clauses. Therefore, these semi-auxiliaries are fixed, and cannot be used interchangeably.Template:Sfn {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} have the same meaning, however {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} may be more intense; in most instances either semi-auxiliary verb can be used.Template:Sfn {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ~ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} can take a NP as its subject, but most commonly takes the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} complement as a subject,Template:Sfn which is demonstrated below:

An example of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ~ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} used in imperative structure can be seen here:

In the case of pronouns, they can only be negated when they form part of the NP, when acting as the predicate head.Template:Sfn Therefore, pronouns cannot be the NP subject of semi-auxiliary verbs {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ~ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in the way that general nouns can.Template:Sfn

Combining semi-auxiliary verbs

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ~ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} can be combined with other auxiliary verbs to produce diverse constructions.Template:Sfn Both {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ~ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} can connect with semi-auxiliary {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Gloss to negate the concept of possibility which is attached to the verb Template:Gloss (resulting in constructions such as Template:Gloss and Template:Gloss).Template:Sfn

Modifiers in negation

Two main modifiers, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Gloss and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Gloss play key roles in negation in Fijian, and work in conjunction with semi-auxiliary verbs. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is added after negators {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ~ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and functions as an intensity marker.Template:Sfn The construction {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is translatable as Template:Gloss. The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} construction requires an adjective (or an adverb which results from an adjective), and must take {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (complement clause) as its subject in order to function.Template:Sfn {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} can be found in position immediately after {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, but may also be found after the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} relator without changing the meaning of the phrase.Template:Sfn The primary construction is shown below:

Similarly, to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, the modifier {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Gloss can also be used in conjunction with {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ~ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. This combination is used to stress the negative sense and aspect of a phrase.Template:Sfn

Pronouns and person markers

The pronominal system of Fijian is remarkably rich. Like many other languages, it recognises three persons; first person (speaker), second person (addressee), and third person (all other). There is no distinction between human, non-human, animate, or inanimate.Template:Sfn Four numbers are represented; singular, dual, paucal, and plural—'paucal' refers to more than two people who have some relationship, as a family or work group; if none, 'plural' is used. Like many other Oceanic languages, Fijian pronouns are marked for number and clusivity.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Bouma Fijian pronounsTemplate:Sfn

Person		Number
		singular	dual	paucal	plural
1INCL	subject		lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
	object		lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
	cardinal		lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
1EXCL	subject	lang}} ~ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
	object	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
	cardinal	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
2	subject	lang}}	lang}} ~ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}	lang}} ~ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}	lang}} ~ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
	object	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
	cardinal	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
3	subject	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
	object	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
	cardinal	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}

Forms and function

Each pronoun can have five forms, but some person-number combinations may have the same form for more than one function,Template:Sfn as can be seen in the table above.

The forms are:

Cardinal – used when a pronoun occurs as the head of a NP. A cardinal pronoun is usually preceded by the proper article {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, except when preceded by a preposition:

Subject – the first constituent of a predicate, acts as person marking. Examples can be seen in examples (1) and (2) above: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and (3) below: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

Object – follows the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}-final form of a transitive verb:

Possessive suffix – attaches to inalienable nouns, and

Possessive – precedes the NP head of the 'possessed' constituent in a possessive construction.

(For more information on the form and function of these possessive pronouns, see Possession.)

Use

The major clausal structure in Fijian minimally includes a predicate, which usually has a verb at its head.Template:Sfn The initial element in the predicate is the subject form pronoun:

This 'subject marker + verb' predicate construction is obligatory, every other constituent is optional. The subject may be expanded upon by an NP following the predicate:

The subject pronoun constituent of a predicate acts mainly as a person marker.

Fijian is a verb–object–subject language, and the subject pronoun may be translated as its equivalent in English, the subject NP of a clause in Fijian follows the verb and the object if it is included.

The social use of pronouns is largely driven by respect and hierarchy. Each of the non-singular second person pronouns can be used for a singular addressee. For example, if one's actual or potential in-laws are addressed, the 2DU pronoun should be used. Similarly, when a brother or sister of the opposite sex is addressed, the 2PA pronoun should be used, and it can also be used for same-sex siblings when the speaker wishes to show respect. The 2PL pronoun can be used to show respect to elders, particularly the village chief.Template:Sfn

Possession

Possession is a grammatical term for a special relationship between two entities: a "possessor" and a "possessed". The relationship may be one of legal ownership, but in Fijian, like many other Austronesian languages, it is often much broader, encompassing kin relations, body parts, parts of an inanimate whole and personal qualities and concepts such as control, association and belonging.

Fijian has a complex system of possessive constructions, depending on the nature of the possessor and of the possessed. Choosing the appropriate structure depends on knowingTemplate:Sfn whether the possessor is a personal or place name, a pronoun, or a common noun (with human or non-human, animate or inanimate reference), and also on whether the possessed is a free or bound noun.

Possessor

Only an animate noun may be a possessor in the true possessive constructions shown below, with possession marked on the possessed NP in a number of ways. For personal and place name possessors, the possessive construction may be made by affixing the possessive suffix {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} to the possessed noun, bound or free. If the possessor is a pronoun, the possessed noun must be marked by one of the pronominal markers which specify person, number and inclusivity/exclusivity (see table). If the possessor is inanimate, the possessive particle {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is usually placed between the possessed NP and the possessor NP. The particle {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} then indicates association, rather than formal possession, but the construction is still regarded as a possessive construction.

Possessed

Free nouns can stand alone and need no affix; most nouns in Fijian fall into this class. Bound nouns require a suffix to complete them and are written ending in a hyphen to indicate this requirement. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Gloss and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Gloss are examples of bound nouns. The classes of free and bound nouns roughly correspond with the concept, common in Austronesian languages, of alienable and inalienable possession, respectively. Alienable possession denotes a relationship in which the thing possessed is not culturally considered an inherent part of the possessor, and inalienable possession indicates a relationship in which the possessed is regarded as an intrinsic part of the possessor.

Body parts and kin relations are typical examples of inalienable possession. Inanimate objects are typical examples of alienable possession.

The alienable nature of free nouns is further marked by prefixes, known as classifiers, indicating certain other characteristics. Some common examples are {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} when the possessed noun is something drinkable, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) when the noun is something edible and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} when the referent of the possessed noun is personal property.

Fijian possessive pronominal suffix markersTemplate:Sfn

		Single	Dual	Paucal	Plural
1st person	exclusive	-qu	-irau	-itou	-imami
	inclusive		-daru	-datou	-da
2nd person		-mu	-mudrau	-mudou	-muni
3rd person		-na	-drau	-dratou	-dra

Possessive constructions

The word order of a possessive construction for all except inanimate possessors is possessed NP-classifier(CLF) + possessive marker (POSS) + possessor NP. For an inanimate possessor, the word order is possessed NP + {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} + possessor NP.Template:Sfn

	POSSESSED	POSSESSED
POSSESSOR	bound noun	free noun
personal/place name	lang}} (example 1)	lang}}; or suffix {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (example 2)
pronoun	lang}} (example 3a, b)	classifier plus possessor pronoun (example 4a, b)
human noun	lang}}; or NP {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} NP (example 5)	classifier plus possessor pronoun, expanded by post-head possessor NP (example 6)
animate noun	lang}} NP ; or pronominal suffix, expanded by post-head possessor NP	lang}} NP; or classifier plus possessor pronoun, expanded by post-head possessor NP
inanimate noun	lang}} NP (example 7, 8)	lang}} NP (example 7, 8)

Note that there is some degree of flexibility in the use of possessive constructions as described in this table.

Syntax

The normal Fijian word order is VOS (verb–object–subject): Template:Interlinear

Sample phrases

Greetings

Below are some examples of Fijian greetings.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Fijian	English	IPA
lang}}	I love you.	main}}
lang}}	hello (literally "life")	main}}
lang}}	yes	main}}
lang}}	please	main}}
lang}}	goodbye	main}}
lang}}	hello (formal), welcome	main}}
lang}}	no	main}}
lang}}	no worries	main}}
lang}}	see you later	main}}
lang}}	How are you?	main}}
lang}}	thank you	main}}
lang}}	good morning	main}}

Sample text

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 1

Grammatical abbreviations

Abbreviations and Constructions

1	first person
2	second person
3	third person
ART	article
ASP	aspect
CLF	numeral classifier
MODIF	modifier
NP	noun phrase
PTCP	participle
PASS	passive voice
PAST	past tense
PL	plural
POSS	possessive
PREP	preposition
PN	pronoun
REDUP	reduplication
SG	singular
TR	transitive

<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

MODIF:modifier

<section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

National language debate

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} In May and June 2005, a number of prominent Fiji Islanders called for the status of Fijian to be upgraded. It was not an official language before the adoption of the 1997 Constitution, which made it co-official with English and Fiji Hindi. It is still not a compulsory subject in schoolsTemplate:When, but then Education Minister, Ro Teimumu Kepa, had endorsed calls for that to change, as had the former Great Council of Chiefs Chairman Ratu Ovini Bokini. Similar calls also came from Misiwini Qereqeretabua, the former Director of the Institute of Fijian Language and Culture, and from Apolonia Tamata, a linguistics lecturer at Suva's University of the South Pacific, both of whom said that recognition of the Fijian language is essential to the nation's basic identity and as a unifying factor in Fiji's multicultural society.

The Fiji Labour Party leader Mahendra Chaudhry also endorsed the call for Fijian to be made a national language and a compulsory school subject if the same status was given to Fiji Hindi, a position that was echoed by Krishna Vilas of the National Reconciliation Committee.

See also

• East Fijian languages
• Languages of Fiji
• West Fijian languages

Sources

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book

External links

• Fijian language, alphabet and pronunciation at Omniglot
• Fijian–English / English–Fijian Dictionary
• Na Soqoni Tabu: Na Veitarataravi Ni Noda Veiqaravi Kei Na Kalou Anglican Holy Communion in Fijian
• A collection of open access Fijian recordings in Kaipuleohone.
• Index cards of plant and animal names, labeled 'Fiji [plants]' archived with Kaipuleohone
• Materials on Fijian are included in the open access Arthur Capell collections (AC1 and AC2) held by Paradisec.
• Paradisec also holds an open access collection of Fijian music Fijian manuscripts in the Pacific Manuscripts Bureau collection,
• George Grace's manuscript collection at the University of Hawai'i includes Fijian