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Food coloring

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File:Rainbow of food natural food colors.jpg
A variety of food colorings, added to beakers of water

Food coloring, color additive or colorant is any dye, pigment, or substance that imparts color when it is added to food or beverages. Colorants can be supplied as liquids, powders, gels, or pastes. Food coloring is commonly used in commercial products and in domestic cooking.

Food colorants are also used in various non-food applications, including cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, home craft projects, and medical devices.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Some colorings may be natural, such as with carotenoids and anthocyanins extracted from plants or cochineal from insects, or may be synthesized, such as tartrazine yellow.

In the manufacturing of foods, beverages and cosmetics, the safety of colorants is under constant scientific review and certification by national regulatory agencies, such as the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and by international reviewers, such as the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives.

Purpose of food coloringEdit

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People associate certain colors with certain flavors, and the color of food can influence the perceived flavor in anything from candy to wine.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Sometimes, the aim is to simulate a color that is perceived by the consumer as natural, such as adding red coloring to glacé cherries (which would otherwise be beige), but sometimes it is for effect, like the green ketchup that Heinz launched in 2000. Color additives are used in foods for many reasons including:<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Barrows" />

  • Making food more attractive, appealing, or appetizing
  • Offsetting color loss over time due to exposure to light, air, temperature extremes, moisture, or storage conditions
  • Stabilizing natural variations in color
  • Enhancing colors that occur naturally
  • Providing color to colorless or "fun" foods
  • Allowing products to be identified via sight, such as candy flavors or medicine dosages

Natural food dyesEdit

HistoryEdit

The addition of colorants to foods is thought to have occurred in Egyptian cities as early as 1500 BC, when candy makers added natural extracts and wine to improve the products' appearance.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> During the Middle Ages, the economy in the European countries was based on agriculture, and the peasants were accustomed to producing their own food locally or trading within the village communities. Under feudalism, aesthetic aspects were not considered, at least not by the vast majority of the generally very poor population.<ref name="Arlt">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web

}}</ref> This situation changed with urbanization at the beginning of the Modern Age, when trade emerged—especially the import of precious spices and colors. One of the first food laws, created in Augsburg, Germany, in 1531, concerned spices or colorants and required saffron counterfeiters to be burned to death.<ref name="cook">Template:Cite journal</ref>

File:13-08-31-wien-redaktionstreffen-EuT-by-Bi-frie-037.jpg
The orange color of carrots and many other fruits and vegetables arises from carotenoids.

Natural colorantsEdit

Carotenoids (E160, E161, E164), chlorophyllin (E140, E141), anthocyanins (E163), and betanin (E162) comprise four main categories of plant pigments grown to color food products.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Other colorants or specialized derivatives of these core groups include:

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>, a white mineral[1]

Blue colors are rare.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The pigment genipin, present in the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides, can be treated with amino acids to produce the blue pigment gardenia blue, which is approved for use in Japan, but not the EU or the US.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

To ensure reproducibility, the colored components of these substances are often provided in highly purified form. For stability and convenience, they can be formulated in suitable carrier materials (solid and liquids). Hexane, acetone, and other solvents break down cell walls in the fruit and vegetables and allow for maximum extraction of the coloring. Traces of these may still remain in the finished colorant, but they do not need to be declared on the product label. These solvents are known as carry-over ingredients.

Chemical structures of representative natural colorantsEdit

  • Food colorants, natural
  • Betanin.svg

    Betanin, a magenta dye, mainly produced from beets

  • Anthocyanidine.svg

    Anthocyanin, a red to blue dye depending on functional groups and pH

  • Beta-Carotin.svg

    Beta-carotene, a yellow to orange colorant

Artificial food colorantsEdit

HistoryEdit

With the onset of the industrial revolution, people became dependent on foods produced by others.<ref name="Arlt" /> These new urban dwellers demanded food at low cost. Analytical chemistry was still primitive and regulations few. The adulteration of foods flourished.<ref name="Arlt" /> Heavy metal and other inorganic element-containing compounds turned out to be cheap and suitable to "restore" the color of watered-down milk and other foodstuffs, some more lurid examples being:<ref name="a">Template:Cite journal</ref>

  • Red lead (Pb3O4) and vermillion (HgS) were routinely used to color cheese and confectionery.
  • Copper arsenite (CuHAsO3) was used to recolor used tea leaves for resale. It also caused two deaths when used to color a dessert in 1860.

Sellers at the time offered more than 80 artificial coloring agents, some invented for dyeing textiles, not foods.<ref name="a" /> Template:Quote Many color additives had never been tested for toxicity or other adverse effects. Historical records show that injuries, even deaths, resulted from tainted colorants. In 1851, about 200 people were poisoned in England, 17 of them fatally, directly as a result of eating adulterated lozenges.<ref name="Arlt" /> In 1856, mauveine, the first synthetic color, was developed by Sir William Henry Perkin and by the turn of the century, unmonitored color additives had spread through Europe and the United States in all sorts of popular foods, including ketchup, mustard, jellies, and wine.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Originally, these were dubbed 'coal-tar' colors because the starting materials were obtained from bituminous coal.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Barrows">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Synthetic dyes are often less costly and technically superior to natural dyes.<ref name="a" /><ref name=Azodye>Template:Ullmann</ref><ref name=JK>Template:Citation</ref>

Chemical structures of representative artificial colorantsEdit

RegulationEdit

History: 19th and 20th centuriesEdit

Concerns over food safety led to numerous regulations throughout the world. German food regulations released in 1882 stipulated the exclusion of dangerous "minerals" such as arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, mercury, and zinc, which were frequently used as ingredients in colorants.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In contrast to today's regulatory guidelines, these first laws followed the principle of a negative listing (substances not allowed for use); they were already driven by the main principles of today's food regulations all over the world, since all of these regulations follow the same goal: the protection of consumers from toxic substances and from fraud.<ref name="Arlt" /> In the United States, the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 reduced the permitted list of synthetic colors from 700 down to seven.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The seven dyes initially approved were Ponceau 3R (FD&C Red No. 1), amaranth (FD&C Red No. 2), erythrosine (FD&C Red No. 3), indigotine (FD&C Blue No. 2), light green SF (FD&C Green No. 2), naphthol yellow 1 (FD&C Yellow No. 1), and orange 1 (FD&C Orange No. 1). Even with updated food laws, adulteration continued for many years.

In the 20th century, improved chemical analysis and testing led to the replacement of the negative lists by positive listings. Positive lists consist of substances allowed to be used for the production and the improvement of foods. Most prevailing legislations are based on positive listing.<ref name="Arlt" /> Positive listing implies that substances meant for human consumption have been tested for their safety, and that they have to meet specified purity criteria prior to their approval by the corresponding authorities. In 1962, the first EU directive (62/2645/EEC) approved 36 colorants, of which 20 were naturally derived and 16 were synthetic.<ref>EEC: Council Directive on the approximation of the rules of the Member States concerning the coloring matters authorized for use in foodstuffs intended for human consumption OJ 115, 11.11.1962, p. 2645–2654 (DE, FR, IT, NL) English special edition: Series I Volume 1959–1962 p. 279–290</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This directive did not list which food products the colorants could or could not be used in. At that time, each member state could designate where certain colors could and could not be used. In Germany, for example, quinoline yellow was allowed in puddings and desserts, but tartrazine was not. The reverse was true in France.<ref name="cook" /> This was updated in 1989 with 89/107/EEC, which concerned food additives authorized for use in foodstuffs.<ref>Council Directive 89/107/EEC of 21 December 1988 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning food additives authorized for use in foodstuffs intended for human consumption OJ L 40, 11.2.1989, p. 27–33 (ES, DA, DE, EL, EN, FR, IT, NL, PT)</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Status as of 2024Edit

Naturally derived colors, most of which have been used traditionally for centuries, are exempt from certification by several regulatory bodies throughout the world, such as the FDA.<ref name=fda23/> Included in the exempt category are colors or pigments from vegetables, minerals, or animals, such as annatto extract (yellow), beets (purple), beta-carotene (yellow to orange), and grape skin extract (purple).<ref name=fda23/>

Synthetic food colorings are typically less expensive to manufacture, but require closer scientific scrutiny for safety and are certified for use in food manufacturing in the United States,<ref name=fda23/> United Kingdom,<ref name="fsa24">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and European Union.<ref name="efsa24">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Global marketEdit

The global market for food coloring is anticipated to grow from $4.6 billion in 2023 to $6 billion by 2028. This expansion is primarily driven by increasing consumer demand for visually appealing food products. Home chefs, particularly those active on social media, are seeking vibrant colors to enhance the aesthetic appeal of their homemade snacks and treats. Additionally, large food brands incorporate vivid colors into their products to stand out in a competitive market.<ref name="g100">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

While the demand for food coloring is rising, there are growing concerns about its potential health implications. Some localities, such as California, have implemented regulations restricting certain artificial dyes due to concerns about their impact on children's behavior.<ref name="g100" />

National regulationsEdit

CanadaEdit

Canada has published food and drug regulations covering food colorants.<ref name=canreg>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Food in Canada cannot be sold with more than:<ref name=canreg/>Template:Rp

European UnionEdit

File:M&Ms Belgium.jpg
Due to European Union regulations on food coloring, European M&M's have darker colors than American M&M's.

In the European Union, [[E number|ETemplate:Nbspnumbers]] are used for all additives, both synthetic and natural, that are approved in food applications. ETemplate:Nbspnumbers beginning with 1, such as E100 (turmeric) or E161b (lutein), are allocated to colorants.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The safety of food colors and other food additives in the EU is evaluated by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Color Directive 94/36/EC, enacted by the European Commission in 1994, outlines permitted natural and artificial colors with their approved applications and limits in different foods.<ref name="cook" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This is binding on all member countries of the EU; any changes have to be implemented into national laws by a specified deadline. In non-EU member states, food additives are regulated by national authorities, which usually, but not always, try to harmonize with EU regulations. Most other countries have their own regulations and list of food colors which can be used in various applications, including maximum daily intake limits.

Permitted synthetic colorants in the EU include [[E Number#E100–E199 (colours)|ETemplate:Nbspnumbers]] 102–143 which cover the range of artificial colors. The EU maintains a list of allowed additives.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Some artificial dyes approved for food use in the EU include:

The three synthetic colors OrangeTemplate:NbspB, Citrus Red No.Template:Nbsp2 and FD&C Green No.Template:Nbsp3 are not permitted in the EU, nor is toasted partially-defatted cooked cottonseed flour.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

IndiaEdit

The Food Safety and Standard Act, 2006 in India generally permits eight artificial colorings in food:<ref name="FSSA,2006">Template:Cite book</ref>

SL No. Color Common name INS No. Chemical class
1 Red Ponceau 4R 124 Azo
Carmoisine 122 Azo
Erythrosine 127 Xanthene
2 Yellow Tartrazine 102 Pyrazolone
Sunset yellow FCF 110 Azo
3 Blue Indigo carmine 132 Indigoid
Brilliant blue FCF 133 Triarylmethane
4 Green Fast green FCF 143 Triarylmethane

United StatesEdit

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The FDA permitted colors are classified as subject to certification or exempt from certification in Code of Federal Regulations – Title 21 Part 73 & 74,<ref>Code of Federal Regulations – Title 21 Part 73 & 74 Template:Webarchive</ref> both of which are subject to rigorous safety standards prior to their approval and listing for use in foods.<ref name=fda23/><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

In the United States, FD&C numbers (which indicate that the FDA has approved the colorant for use in foods, drugs and cosmetics) are given to approved synthetic food dyes that do not exist in nature.

Currently permitted synthetic colorants include the following seven artificial colorings (the most common in bold).<ref name="fda-ing">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The lakes of these colorings are also permitted except the lake of Red No. 3.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The United States Secretary of Health and Human Services is looking to phase out all of these by 2026 (2027 for Red No. 3), and the Food and Drug Administration is planning on authorizing four new colorings before then.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

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Two dyes are allowed by the FDA for limited applications:

  • Citrus red 2 (orange shade) – allowed only to color orange peels.
  • Orange B (red shade) – allowed only for use in hot dog and sausage casings (not produced after 1978, but not delisted)

Many dyes have been delisted for a variety of reasons, ranging from poor coloring properties to regulatory restrictions.<ref name=fdc>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Subscription required</ref> Some of these delisted food colorants are:

  • FD&C Red No. 2 – Amaranth, E123
  • FD&C Red No. 4 – Scarlet GN, E125<ref name=eb/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Global harmonizationEdit

Since the beginning of the 1960s, the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives has promoted the development of international standards for food additives, not only by its toxicological assessments, which are continuously published by the World Health Organization in a "Technical Report Series",<ref>Template:Cite report</ref> but furthermore by elaborating appropriate purity criteria, which are laid down in the two volumes of the "Compendium of Food Additive Specifications" and their supplements.<ref>Template:Cite report</ref> These specifications are not legally binding but very often serve as a guiding principle, especially in countries where no scientific expert committees have been established.<ref name="Arlt" />

To further regulate the use of these evaluated additives, in 1962 the WHO and FAO created an international commission, the Codex Alimentarius, which is composed of authorities, food industry associations and consumer groups from all over the world. Within the Codex organization, the Codex Committee for Food Additives and Contaminants is responsible for working out recommendations for the application of food additives: the General Standard for Food Additives.<ref>Template:Cite report</ref> In the light of the World Trade Organizations General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the Codex Standard, although not legally binding, influences food color regulations all over the world.<ref name="Arlt" />

Safety evaluationEdit

A 2023 update by the FDA on food colorants required safety assurances by manufacturers and restrictions on the types of foods in which colorants are used, their maximum amounts and labeling, batch certification, and the amount needed to attain the desired food coloring.<ref name="fda23">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Scientific consensus regards that food color additives are safe under the restrictions for use, and that most children have no adverse effects when consuming foods with color ingredients; some individual studies, however, indicate that certain children may have allergic sensitivities to colorants.<ref name="fda-color23">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In October 2023, the state of California banned the colorant, Red 3, in food products starting in 2027.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

In the 20th century, widespread public belief that artificial food coloring causes ADHD-like hyperactivity in children originated from Benjamin Feingold, a pediatric allergist from California, who proposed in 1973 that salicylates, artificial colors, and artificial flavors cause hyperactivity in children.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, there is no clinical evidence to support broad claims that food coloring causes food intolerance and ADHD-like behavior in children.<ref>Tomaska LD and Brooke-Taylor, S. Food Additives – General pp. 449–454 in Encyclopedia of Food Safety, Vol 2: Hazards and Diseases. Eds, Motarjemi Y et al. Academic Press, 2013. Template:ISBN</ref>Template:Rp<ref name="KavaleForness1983">Template:Cite journal</ref> It is possible that certain food colorings may act as a trigger in those who are genetically predisposed.<ref name=FDAdyecomm/><ref name=Peds2012>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Concerns were expressed again in 2011 that food colorings may cause ADHD-like behavior in children;<ref name=FDAdyecomm>FDA. Background Document for the Food Advisory Committee: Certified Color Additives in Food and Possible Association with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children: March 30–31, 2011</ref> a 2015 literature review found the evidence inconclusive.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The UK Food Standards Agency examined the effects of tartrazine, allura red, ponceau 4R, quinoline yellow, sunset yellow and carmoisine on children. These colorants are found in beverages.<ref name=FDAdyecomm/><ref name=FSAguideline>Sarah Chapman of Chapman Technologies on behalf of Food Standards Agency in Scotland. March 2011 [Guidelines on approaches to the replacement of tartrazine (E102), allura red (E129), ponceau 4R (E124), quinoline yellow (E104), sunset yellow (E110), and carmoisine (E122) in food and beverages]</ref> The study found "a possible link between the consumption of these artificial colours and a sodium benzoate preservative and increased hyperactivity" in the children;<ref name=FDAdyecomm/><ref name=FSAguideline/> the advisory committee to the FSA that evaluated the study also determined that because of study limitations, the results could not be extrapolated to the general population, and further testing was recommended.<ref name=COT>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=FDAdyecomm/> After continuous review as of 2024, the FSA stated that the above artificial food colors may induce hyperactivity in some children.<ref name=fsa24/> Food and drink products containing any of the six designated colors must warn consumers on the package labels, stating May have an adverse effect on activity and attention in children.<ref name=fsa24/>

The European regulatory community, with an emphasis on the precautionary principle, required labeling and temporarily reduced the acceptable daily intake for the food colorings; the UK FSA called for voluntary withdrawal of the colorings by food manufacturers.<ref name=FDAdyecomm/><ref name=FSAguideline/> However, in 2009, the European Food Safety Authority re-evaluated the data at hand and determined that "the available scientific evidence does not substantiate a link between the color additives and behavioral effects" for any of the dyes.<ref name=EFSA2009>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=EFSA2009PR>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=EFSA2009Tart>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Titanium dioxideEdit

In 2016, EFSA updated its safety assessment of titanium dioxide (E 171), concluding that it can no longer be considered safe as a food additive.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> As of 2024, the FDA was evaluating a petition to exclude titanium dioxide from use in foods, beverages or cosmetics in the United States.<ref name="fda-td">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

NotesEdit

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See alsoEdit

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ReferencesEdit

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Template:Food colorings Template:Food chemistry Template:Authority control

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