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Klezmer

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Klezmer (Template:Langx or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is an instrumental musical tradition of the Ashkenazi Jews of Central and Eastern Europe.<ref name="Humanities">Template:Cite news</ref> The essential elements of the tradition include dance tunes, ritual melodies, and virtuosic improvisations played for listening; these would have been played at weddings and other social functions.<ref name="OJFM 530-48">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Rubin 2020 29">Template:Cite book</ref> The musical genre incorporated elements of many other musical genres including Ottoman (especially Greek and Romanian) music, Baroque music, German and Slavic folk dances, and religious Jewish music.<ref name="Slobin 2000 7">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Feldman 2016 208-10">Template:Cite book</ref> As the music arrived in the United States, it lost some of its traditional ritual elements and adopted elements of American big band and popular music.<ref name="Rubin 2020 71-4">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Feldman 2016 216-8">Template:Cite book</ref> Among the European-born klezmers who popularized the genre in the United States in the 1910s and 1920s were Dave Tarras and Naftule Brandwein; they were followed by American-born musicians such as Max Epstein, Sid Beckerman and Ray Musiker.<ref name="YIVO encyclopedia instr">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

After the destruction of Jewish life in Eastern Europe during the Holocaust, and a general fall in the popularity of klezmer music in the United States, the music began to be popularized again in the late 1970s in the so-called Klezmer Revival.<ref name="Humanities"/> During the 1980s and onwards, musicians experimented with traditional and experimental forms of the genre, releasing fusion albums combining the genre with jazz, punk, and other styles.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

EtymologyEdit

The term Template:Transliteration, as used in the Yiddish language, has a Hebrew etymology: klei, meaning "tools, utensils or instruments of" and zemer, "melody"; leading to k'lei zemer Template:Script/Hebrew, meaning "musical instruments".<ref name="Hasidic lexicon" /><ref name="Humanities"/> This expression would have been familiar to literate Jews across the diaspora, not only Ashkenazi Jews in Eastern Europe.<ref name="Feldman 2016 61-7">Template:Cite book</ref> Over time the usage of "Template:Transliteration" in a Yiddish context evolved to describe musicians instead of their instruments, first in Bohemia in the second half of the sixteenth century and then in Poland, possibly as a response to the new status of the musicians who were at that time forming professional guilds.<ref name="Feldman 2016 61-7" /> Previously the musician may have been referred to as a Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) or other terms.<ref name="YIVO encylopedia article">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Liptzin">Template:Cite book</ref> After the term Template:Transliteration became the preferred term for these professional musicians in Yiddish-speaking Eastern Europe, other types of musicians were more commonly known as Template:Transliteration or Template:Transliteration.

It was not until the late 20th century that the word "klezmer" became a commonly known English-language term.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> During that time, through metonymy it came to refer not only to the musician but to the musical genre they played, a meaning which it had not had in Yiddish.<ref name="Alexander 2021 87">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Slobin 2000 6">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Netsky 1998">Template:Cite journal</ref> Early 20th century recording industry materials and other writings had referred to it as Hebrew, Jewish, or Yiddish dance music, or sometimes using the Yiddish term Freilech music ("Cheerful music").

Twentieth century Russian scholars sometimes used the term klezmer; Ivan Lipaev did not use it, but Moisei Beregovsky did when publishing in Yiddish or Ukrainian.<ref name="Feldman 2016 61-7" />

The firstTemplate:Citation needed postwar recordings to use the term "klezmer" to refer to the music were The Klezmorim's East Side Wedding and Streets of Gold in 1977/78, followed by Andy Statman and Zev Feldman's Jewish Klezmer Music in 1979.Template:Citation needed

Musical elementsEdit

StyleEdit

The traditional style of playing klezmer music, including tone, typical cadences, and ornamentation, sets it apart from other genres.<ref name="Rubin 2020 175-214">Template:Cite book</ref> Although klezmer music emerged from a larger Eastern European Jewish musical culture that included Jewish cantorial music, Hasidic Niguns, and later Yiddish theatre music, it also borrowed from the surrounding folk musics of Central and Eastern Europe and from cosmopolitan European musical forms.<ref name="Slobin 2000 7" /><ref name="Feldman 2022">Template:Cite journal</ref> Therefore it evolved into an overall style which has recognizable elements from all of those other genres.

Few klezmer musicians before the late nineteenth century had formal musical training, but they inherited a rich tradition with its own advanced musical techniques. Each musician had their understanding of how the style should be "correctly" performed.<ref name="Rubin 2009">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Rubin 2020 175-214" /> The usage of these ornaments was not random; the matters of "taste", self-expression, variation and restraint were and remain important elements of how to interpret the music.<ref name="Rubin 2020 175-214" />

Klezmer musicians apply the overall style to available specific techniques on each melodic instrument. They incorporate and elaborate the vocal melodies of Jewish religious practice, including khazones, davenen, and paraliturgical song, extending the range of human voice into the musical expression possible on instruments.<ref name="Feldman 2016 39">Template:Cite book</ref> Among those stylistic elements that are considered typically "Jewish" in klezmer music are those which are shared with cantorial or Hasidic vocal ornaments, including imitations of sighing or laughing.<ref name="Slobin 2000 98-122">Template:Cite book</ref> Various Yiddish terms were used for these vocal-like ornaments such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Krekhts, "groan" or "moan"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration, "wrinkle" or "fold"), and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration, "pressure" or "stress").<ref name="Hasidic lexicon" /> Other ornaments such as trills, grace notes, appoggiaturas, glitshn (glissandos), tshoks (a kind of bent notes of cackle-like sound), flageolets (string harmonics),<ref name=strom2006>Yale Strom, "The absolutely complete klezmer songbook", 2006, Template:ISBN, Introduction</ref><ref>Strom 2012, pp. 101, 102</ref> pedal notes, mordents, slides and typical klezmer cadences are also important to the style.<ref name="Rubin 2020 175-214" /> In particular, the cadences which draw on religious Jewish music identify a piece more strongly as a klezmer tune, even if its broader structure was borrowed from a non-Jewish source.<ref name="Feldman 2016 375-85" /><ref name="Feldman 2022" /> Sometimes the term dreydlekh is used only for trills, while other use it for all klezmer ornaments.<ref>Chris Haigh, The Fiddle Handbook, 2009, Example 4.9</ref> Unlike in Classical music, vibrato is used sparingly, and is treated as another type of ornament.<ref name="Slobin 2000 98-122" /><ref name="Rubin 2020 175-214" />

In an article about Jewish music in Romania, Bob Cohen of Di Naye Kapelye describes krekhts as "a sort of weeping or hiccoughing combination of backwards slide and flick of the little finger high above the base note, while the bow does, well, something – which aptly imitates Jewish liturgical singing style." He also noted that the only other place he has heard this particular ornamentation is in Turkish music on the violin.<ref>Cohen.</ref> Yale Strom wrote that the use of dreydlekh by American violinists gradually diminished since the 1940s, but with the klezmer revival in 1970, dreydlekh had become prominent again.<ref name=strom2012>Yale Strom, Shpil: The Art of Playing Klezmer, 2012, p. 94</ref>

The accompaniment style of the accompanist or orchestra could be fairly impromptu, called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration, holding onto).<ref name="Avenary 1960" />

Historical repertoireEdit

The repertoire of klezmer musicians was very diverse and tied to specific social functions and dances, especially of the traditional wedding.<ref name="OJFM 530-48" /><ref name="Feldman 2022" /> These melodies might have a non-Jewish origin, or have been composed by a klezmer, but only rarely are they attributed to a specific composer.<ref name="Beregovski 1941" /> Generally klezmer music can be divided into two broad categories: music for specific dances, and music for listening (at the table, in processions, ceremonial, etc.).<ref name="Beregovski 1941" />

DancesEdit

  • Freylekhs. The simplest and most widespread type of klezmer dance tunes are those played in Template:Music and intended for group circle dances. Depending on the location this basic dance may also have been called a Template:Transliteration (circle), Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration (round dance, literally the Belarusian translation of the Russian khorovod), Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, etc.<ref name="OJFM 530-48" /><ref name="Feldman 2016 275-98">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Avenary 1960" /><ref name="Hasidic lexicon" />
  • Bulgar, or Template:Transliteration, became the most popular klezmer dance form in the United States. Its origin is thought to be in Moldavia and with a deep connection to the Sârbă genre there.<ref name="Feldman 2022" />
  • Sher is a contra dance in Template:Music. Beregovsky, writing in the 1930s, noted that despite the dance being very commonly played across a wide area, he suspected that it had its roots in an older German dance.<ref name="OJFM 530-48" /> This dance continued to be known in the United States even after other complex European klezmer dances had been forgotten.<ref name="Feldman 2016 261-73">Template:Cite book</ref> In some regions the music of a Sher could be interchangeable with a Freylekhs.<ref name="Feldman 2022" />
  • Template:Transliteration, or Template:Transliteration, named after Hasidic Jews, is a more dignified embellished dance in Template:Music or Template:Music. The dance steps can be performed in a circle or in a line.
  • Hora or Template:Transliteration (from the Romanian Joc) is a circle dance in Template:Music. In the United States, it came to be one of the main dance types after the Bulgar.<ref name="Feldman 2022" />
  • Template:Transliteration<ref name="Beregovski 1941" />
  • Kolomeike is a fast and catchy dance in Template:Music time, which originated in Ukraine, and is prominent in the folk music of that country.
  • Skotshne is generally thought to be a more elaborate Template:Transliteration which could be played either for dancing or listening.<ref name="OJFM 530-48" />
  • Nigun, a very broad term which can refer to melodies for listening, singing or dancing.<ref name="Hasidic lexicon" /> Usually a mid-paced song in Template:Music.
  • Waltzes were very popular, whether classical, Russian, or Polish. A padespan was a sort of Russian/Spanish waltz known to klezmers.
  • Mazurka and polka, Polish and Czech dances, respectively, were often played for both Jews and Gentiles.
  • Sirba – a Romanian dance in Template:Music or Template:Music (Romanian sârbă). It features hopping steps and short bursts of running, accompanied by triplets in the melody.

Non-dance repertoireEdit

OrchestrationEdit

Klezmer music is an instrumental tradition, without much of a history of songs or singing. In Eastern Europe, Klezmers did traditionally accompany the vocal stylings of the Badchen (wedding entertainer), although their performances were typically improvised couplets and the calling of ceremonies rather than songs.<ref name="Pietruszka 1932">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Feldman 2016 146-56">Template:Cite book</ref> (The importance of the Badchen gradually decreased by the twentieth century, although they still continued in some traditions.<ref name="Rubin 1973 251">Template:Cite book</ref>)

As for the klezmer orchestra, its size and composition varied by time and place. The klezmer bands of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century were small, with roughly three to five musicians playing woodwind or string instruments.<ref name="Rubin 2009" /> Another common configuration in that era was similar to Hungarian bands today, typically a lead violinist, second violin, cello, and cimbalom.<ref name="Feldman 2016 100-111">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the mid-nineteenth century, the Clarinet started to appear in those small Klezmer ensembles as well.<ref name="Feldman 2016 111-3">Template:Cite book</ref> By the last decades of the century, in Ukraine, the orchestras had grown larger, averaging seven to twelve members, and incorporating brass instruments and up to twenty for a prestigious occasion.<ref name="Feldman 2016 93-6">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Levik memoir">Template:Cite book</ref> (However, for poor weddings a large klezmer ensemble might only send three or four of its junior members.<ref name="Feldman 2016 93-6" />) In these larger orchestras, on top of the core instrumentation of strings and woodwinds, ensembles often featured cornets, C clarinets, trombones, a contrabass, a large Turkish drum, and several extra violins.<ref name="Beregovski 1941" /> The inclusion of Jews in tsarist army bands during the 19th century may also have led to the introduction of typical military band instruments into klezmer. With such large orchestras, the music was arranged so that the bandleader soloist could still be heard at key moments.<ref name="Feldman 2016 115">Template:Cite book</ref> In Galicia, and Belarus, the smaller string ensemble with cimbalom remained the norm into the twentieth century.<ref name="Feldman 2016 100-16">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Beregovski 1941" /> American klezmer as it developed in dancehalls and wedding banquets of the early twentieth century had a more complete orchestration not unlike those used in popular orchestras of the time. They use a clarinet, saxophone, or trumpet for the melody, and make great use of the trombone for slides and other flourishes.

File:Jewish musicians of Rohatyn (west Ukraine).jpg
Jewish musicians of Rohatyn (west Ukraine)

The melody in klezmer music is generally assigned to the lead violin, although occasionally the flute and eventually clarinet.<ref name="Beregovski 1941" /> The other instrumentalists provide harmony, rhythm, and some counterpoint (the latter usually coming from the second violin or viola). The clarinet now often plays the melody. Brass instruments—such as the French valved cornet and keyed German trumpet—eventually inherited a counter-voice role.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Modern klezmer instrumentation is more commonly influenced by the instruments of the 19th-century military bands than the earlier orchestras.

Percussion in early 20th-century klezmer recordings was generally minimal—no more than a wood block or snare drum. In Eastern Europe, percussion was often provided by a drummer who played a frame drum, or poyk, sometimes called baraban. A poyk is similar to a bass drum and often has a cymbal or piece of metal mounted on top, which is struck by a beater or a small cymbal strapped to the hand.

Melodic modesEdit

Western, Cantorial, and Ottoman music terminologyEdit

Klezmer music is a genre that developed partly in the Western musical tradition but also in the Ottoman Empire, and is primarily an oral tradition which does not have a well-established literature to explain its modes and modal progression.<ref name="Horowitz 1993">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Rubin 2020 122-74" /> But, as with other types of Ashkenazic Jewish music, it has a complex system of modes which were used in its compositions.<ref name="Hasidic lexicon">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Tarsi motifs">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Many of its melodies do not fit well in the major and minor terminology used in Western music, nor is the music systematically microtonal in the way that Middle Eastern music is.<ref name="Horowitz 1993" /> Nusach terminology, as developed for Cantorial music in the nineteenth century, is often used instead, and indeed many klezmer compositions draw heavily on religious music.<ref name="Feldman 2016 220-7" /> But it also incorporates elements of Baroque and Eastern European folk musics, making description based only on religious terminology incomplete.<ref name="Feldman 2016 375-85">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Avenary 1960" /><ref name="Frigyesi 1983" /> Still, since the Klezmer revival of the 1970s, the terms for Jewish prayer modes are the most common to describe those used in klezmer.<ref name="Rubin 2020 361">Template:Cite book</ref> The terms used in Yiddish for these modes include nusach ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}); Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), "manner, mode of life", which describes the typical melodic character, important notes and scale; and Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), a word meaning "taste" which was commonly used by Moisei Beregovsky.<ref name="Avenary 1960">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Beregovski 1941" /><ref name="Rubin 2020 122-74">Template:Cite book</ref>

Beregovsky, who was writing in the Stalinist era and was constrained by having to downplay klezmer's religious aspects, did not use the terminology of synagogue modes, except in some early work in 1929. Instead, he relied on German-inspired musical terminology of major, minor, and "other" modes, which he described in technical terms.<ref name="Beregovski 1941" /><ref name="Feldman 2016 40">Template:Cite book</ref> In his 1940s works he noted that the majority of the klezmer repertoire seemed to be in a minor key, whether natural minor or others, that around a quarter of the material was in Freygish, and that around a fifth of the repertoire was in a major key.<ref name="Beregovski 1941" />

Another set of terminology sometimes used to describe klezmer music is that of the Makams used in Ottoman and other Middle Eastern music.<ref name="Rubin 2020 361" /><ref name="Alford-Fowler 2013">Template:Cite thesis</ref> This approach dates back to Idelsohn in the early twentieth century, who was very familiar with Middle Eastern music, and has been developed in the past decade by Joshua Horowitz.<ref name="Tarsi intersection" /><ref name="Frigyesi 1983">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Rubin 2020 361" /><ref name="Horowitz 1993" />

Finally, some Klezmer music, and especially that composed in the United States from the mid-twentieth century onwards, may not be composed with these traditional modes, but rather built around chords.<ref name="Feldman 2016 375-85" />

DescriptionEdit

Because there is no agreed-upon, complete system for describing modes in Klezmer music, this list is imperfect and may conflate concepts which some scholars view as separate.<ref name="Tarsi motifs" /><ref name="Tarsi intersection">Template:Cite journal</ref> Another problem in listing these terms as simple eight-note (octatonic) scales is that it makes it harder to see how Klezmer melodic structures can work as five-note pentachords, how parts of different modes typically interact, and what the cultural significance of a given mode might be in a traditional Klezmer context.<ref name="Horowitz 1993" /><ref name="Rubin 2020 122-74" />

File:C Jewish scale.PNG
Freygish mode in C
File:Ukrainian Dorian mode on C.png
Mi Sheberakh mode in C
File:Mixolydian mode C.png
Adonoy Molokh mode in C
File:Aeolian mode C.png
Mogen Ovos mode in C

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

HistoryEdit

EuropeEdit

Development of the genreEdit

The Bible has several descriptions of orchestras and Levites making music, but after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, many rabbis discouraged musical instruments.<ref name="Netsky 2015 19-21">Template:Cite book</ref> Therefore, while there may have been Jewish musicians in different times and places since then, the "Klezmer" arose much more recently.<ref name="Stutchewsky 29-45">Template:Cite book</ref> The earliest written record of the use of the word was identified by Template:Ill as being in a Jewish council meeting from Kraków in 1595.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Feldman 2016 62-3">Template:Cite book</ref> They may have existed even earlier in Prague, as references to them have been found as early as 1511 and 1533.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It was in the 1600s that the situation of Jewish musicians in Poland improved, as they gained the right to form Guilds (Khevre), and therefore to set their own fees, hire Christians, and so on.<ref name="Feldman 2016 71-3">Template:Cite book</ref> Therefore over time this new form of professional musician developed new forms of music and elaborated this tradition across a wide area of Eastern European Jewish life. The rise of Hasidic Judaism in the late eighteenth century and onwards also contributed to the development of klezmer, due to their emphasis on dancing and wordless melodies as a component of Jewish practice.<ref name="Netsky 1998" />

The Eastern European klezmer profession (1700–1930s)Edit

File:Portrait of Pedotser (A.M. Kholodenko).jpg
Portrait of Pedotser (A. M. Kholodenko), nineteenth century klezmer virtuoso

The nineteenth century also saw the rise of a number of klezmer violin virtuosos who combined the techniques of classical violinists such as Ivan Khandoshkin and of Bessarabian folk violinists, and who composed dance and display pieces that became widespread even after the composers were gone.<ref name="Horowitz 2012 195">Template:Cite book</ref> Among these figures were Aron-Moyshe Kholodenko "Pedotser", Yosef Drucker "Stempenyu", Alter Goyzman "Alter Chudnover" and Josef Gusikov.<ref name="Stutchewsky 110-4">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="JIFM 2nd I7-I9">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Feldman 2016 149">Template:Cite book</ref>

Unlike in the United States, where there was a robust Klezmer recording industry, there was relatively less recorded in Europe in the early twentieth century. The majority of European recordings of Jewish music consisted of Cantorial and Yiddish Theatre music, with only a few dozen known to exist of Klezmer music.<ref name="Wollock 1997">Template:Cite journal</ref> These include violin pieces by artists such as Oscar Zehngut, Jacob Gegna, H. Steiner, Leon Ahl, and Josef Solinski; flute pieces by S. Kosch, and ensemble recordings by Belf's Romanian Orchestra, the Russian-Jewish Orchestra, Jewish Wedding Orchestra, and Titunshnayder's Orchestra.<ref name="Wollock 1997" /><ref name="Chekhovs Band liner">Template:Cite AV media notes</ref>

Klezmer in the late Russian empire and Soviet eraEdit

The loosening of restrictions on Jews in the Russian Empire, and their newfound access to academic and conservatory training, created a class of scholars who began to reexamine and evaluate klezmer using modern techniques.<ref name="Beregovski 1941" /> Abraham Zevi Idelsohn was one such figure, who sought to find an ancient Middle Eastern origin for Jewish music in the diaspora.<ref name="Netsky 2015 10-1">Template:Cite book</ref> There was also new interest in collecting and studying Jewish music and folklore, including Yiddish songs, folk tales, and instrumental music. An early expedition was by Joel Engel, who collected folk melodies in his birthplace of Berdyansk in 1900. The first figure to collect large amounts of klezmer music was Susman Kiselgof, who made several expeditions to the Pale of Settlement from 1907 to 1915.<ref name="Sholokhova 2004">Template:Cite book</ref> He was soon followed by other scholars such as Moisei Beregovsky and Sofia Magid, Soviet scholars of Yiddish and klezmer music.<ref name="Grözinger 2008">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Beregovski 1941">Template:Cite journal</ref> Most of the materials collected in those expeditions are now held by the Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine.<ref name="Feldman 24">Template:Cite book</ref>

File:KLEZPO.png
Klezmer musicians at a wedding, Ukraine, Template:Circa

Beregovsky, writing in the late 1930s, lamented how little scholars knew about the range of playing technique and social context of Klezmers from past eras, except for the late nineteenth century which could be investigated through elderly musicians who still remembered it.<ref name="OJFM 530-48" />

Jewish music in the Soviet Union, and the continued use of klezmer music, went through several phases of official support or censorship. The officially supported Soviet Jewish musical culture of 1920s involved works based on or satirizing traditional melodies and themes, whereas those of the 1930s were often "Russian" cultural works translated into a Yiddish context.<ref name="Shternshis 2006 xv-xx">Template:Cite book</ref> After 1948, Soviet Jewish culture entered a phase of repression, meaning that Jewish music concerts, whether tied to Hebrew, Yiddish, or instrumental klezmer, were no longer allowed to be performed.<ref name="Wollock 2003">Template:Cite journal</ref> Moisei Beregovsky's academic work was shut down in 1949 and he was arrested and deported to Siberia in 1951.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Feldman 2016 129">Template:Cite book</ref> The repression was eased in the mid-1950s as some Jewish and Yiddish performances were allowed to return to the stage once again.<ref name="Estraikh 2008 57">Template:Cite book</ref> However, the main venue for klezmer has always been traditional community events and weddings, not the concert stage or academic institute; those traditional venues were repressed along with Jewish culture in general, according to anti-religious Soviet policy.<ref name="Shternshis 2006 3-4">Template:Cite book</ref>

United StatesEdit

Early American klezmer (1880s–1910s)Edit

The first klezmers to arrive in the United States followed the first large waves of Eastern European Jewish immigration which began after 1880, establishing themselves mainly in large cities like New York, Philadelphia and Boston.<ref name="Netsky 1998" /> Klezmers—often younger members of klezmer families, or less established musicians—started to arrive from the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Romania and Austria-Hungary.<ref name="Rubin 2020 39">Template:Cite book</ref> Some of them found work in restaurants, dance halls, union rallies, wine cellars, and other modern venues in places like New York's Lower East Side.<ref name="Heskes xix-xxi">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Rubin 2020 36">Template:Cite book</ref> But the major source of income for klezmer musicians seems to have remained weddings and Simchas, as in Europe.<ref name="Loeffler 2002" /> Those early generations of klezmers are much more poorly documented than those working in the 1910s and 1920s; many never recorded or published music, although some are remembered through family or community history, such as the Lemish klezmer family of Iași, Romania, who arrived in Philadelphia in the 1880s and established a klezmer dynasty there.<ref name="Netsky 2015 98-9">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Loeffler 2002">Template:Cite book</ref>

Big band klezmer orchestras (1910s–1920s)Edit

File:Max Leibowitz orchestra from 1921 score cover (Cropped).jpg
Max Leibowitz orchestra from 1921

The vitality of the Jewish music industry in major American cities attracted ever more klezmers from Europe in the 1910s. This coincided with the development of the recording industry, which recorded a number of these klezmer orchestras. By the time of the First World War, the industry turned its attention to ethnic dance music and a number of bandleaders were hired by record companies such as Edison Records, Emerson Records, Okeh Records, and the Victor Recording Company to record 78 rpm discs.<ref name="Brooks FLR">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The first of these was Abe Elenkrig, a barber and cornet player from a klezmer family in Ukraine whose 1913 recording Template:Transliteration (From the Wedding) has been recognized by the Library of Congress.<ref name="LOC declaration">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Netsky LOC PDF">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Among the European-born klezmers recording during that decade were some from the Ukrainian territory of the Russian Empire (Abe Elenkrig, Dave Tarras, Shloimke Beckerman, Joseph Frankel, and Israel J. Hochman), some from Austro-Hungarian Galicia (Naftule Brandwein, Harry Kandel and Berish Katz), and some from Romania (Abe Schwartz, Max Leibowitz, Max Yankowitz, Joseph Moskowitz).<ref name="Heskes xxxiv">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Feldman 2016 279">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Sapoznik 1998 87-94">Template:Cite book</ref>

The mid-1920s also saw a number of popular novelty "Klezmer" groups which performed on the radio or vaudeville stages. These included Joseph Cherniavsky's Yiddish-American Jazz Band, whose members would dress as parodies of Cossacks or Hasidim.<ref name="Sapoznik 1998 107-11">Template:Cite book</ref> Another such group was the Boibriker Kapelle, which performed on the radio and in concerts trying to recreate a nostalgic, old-fashioned Galician Klezmer sound.<ref name="Wollock 2007">Template:Cite journal</ref> With the passing of the Immigration Act of 1924, which greatly restricted Jewish immigration from Europe, and then the onset of the Great Depression by 1930, the market for Yiddish and klezmer recordings in the United States saw a steep decline, which essentially ended the recording career of many of the popular bandleaders of the 1910s and 1920s, and made the large klezmer orchestra less viable.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Celebrity clarinetistsEdit

Along with the rise of klezmer "big bands" in the 1910s and 1920s, a handful of Jewish clarinet players who had led those bands became celebrities in their own right, with a legacy that lasted into subsequent decades. The most popular among these were Naftule Brandwein, Dave Tarras, and Shloimke Beckerman.<ref name="Sapoznik 1998 99-109">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Rubin 2020 2-4">Template:Cite book</ref>

Klezmer revivalEdit

In the mid-to-late 1970s there was a klezmer revival in the United States and Europe, led by Giora Feidman, The Klezmorim, Zev Feldman, Andy Statman, and the Klezmer Conservatory Band. They drew their repertoire from recordings and surviving musicians of U.S. klezmer.<ref name="BKG1998">Template:Cite journal</ref> In particular, clarinetists such as Dave Tarras and Max Epstein became mentors to this new generation of klezmer musicians.<ref name="Netsky 2015 4-5">Template:Cite book</ref> In 1985, Henry Sapoznik and Adrienne Cooper founded KlezKamp to teach klezmer and other Yiddish music.<ref name="Slobin 2000 4">Template:Cite book</ref>

File:Elane Hoffman Watts 2007.jpg
Elane Hoffman Watts, klezmer drummer, in 2007

The 1980s saw a second wave of revival, as interest grew in more traditionally inspired performances with string instruments, largely with non-Jews of the United States and Germany. Musicians began to track down older European klezmer, by listening to recordings, finding transcriptions, and making field recordings of the few klezmorim left in Eastern Europe. Key performers in this style are Joel Rubin, Budowitz, Khevrisa, Di Naye Kapelye, Yale Strom, The Chicago Klezmer Ensemble, The Maxwell Street Klezmer Band, the violinists Alicia Svigals, Steven Greenman,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Cookie Segelstein and Elie Rosenblatt, flutist Adrianne Greenbaum, and tsimbl player Pete Rushefsky. Bands like Brave Old World, Hot Pstromi and The Klezmatics also emerged during this period.

In the 1990s, musicians from the San Francisco Bay Area helped further interest in klezmer music by taking it into new territory. Groups such as the New Klezmer Trio inspired a new wave of bands merging klezmer with other forms of music, such as John Zorn's Masada and Bar Kokhba, Naftule's Dream, Don Byron's Mickey Katz project and violinist Daniel Hoffman's klezmer/jazz/Middle-Eastern fusion band Davka.<ref name="BKG1998" /> The New Orleans Klezmer All-Stars<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> also formed in 1991 with a mixture of New Orleans funk, jazz, and klezmer styles.

Starting in 2008, "The Other Europeans" project, funded by several EU cultural institutions,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> spent a year doing intensive field research in the region of Moldavia under the leadership of Alan Bern and scholar Zev Feldman. They wanted to explore klezmer and lăutari roots, and fuse the music of the two "other European" groups. The resulting band now performs internationally.

A separate klezmer tradition had developed in Israel in the 20th century. Clarinetists Moshe Berlin and Avrum Leib Burstein are known exponents of the klezmer style in Israel. To preserve and promote klezmer music in Israel, Burstein founded the Jerusalem Klezmer Association, which has become a center for learning and performance of klezmer music in the country.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Since the late 1980s, an annual klezmer festival is held every summer in Safed, in the north of Israel.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Popular cultureEdit

In musicEdit

While traditional performances may have been on the decline, many Jewish composers who had mainstream success, such as Leonard Bernstein and Aaron Copland, continued to be influenced by the klezmeric idioms heard during their youth (as Gustav Mahler had been). George Gershwin was familiar with klezmer music, and the opening clarinet glissando of "Rhapsody in Blue" suggests this influence, although the composer did not compose klezmer directly.<ref name="Rogovoy 2000 p. 71">Template:Cite book</ref> Some clarinet stylings of swing jazz bandleaders Benny Goodman and Artie Shaw can be interpreted as having been derived from klezmer, as can the "freilach swing" playing of other Jewish artists of the period such as trumpeter Ziggy Elman.

At the same time, non-Jewish composers were also turning to klezmer for a prolific source of fascinating thematic material. Dmitri Shostakovich in particular admired klezmer music for embracing both the ecstasy and the despair of human life, and quoted several melodies in his chamber masterpieces, the Piano Quintet in G minor, op. 57 (1940), the Piano Trio No. 2 in E minor, op. 67 (1944), and the String Quartet No. 8 in C minor, op. 110 (1960).

The compositions of Israeli-born composer Ofer Ben-Amots incorporate aspects of klezmer music, most notably his 2006 composition Klezmer Concerto. The piece is for klezmer clarinet (written for Jewish clarinetist David Krakauer),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> string orchestra, harp and percussion.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In visual artEdit

File:Issachar Ber Ryback - Wedding Ceremony.jpg
Issachar Ber Ryback - Wedding Ceremony

The figure of the klezmer, as a romantic symbol of nineteenth century Jewish life, appeared in the art of a number of twentieth century Jewish artists such as Anatoli Lvovich Kaplan, Issachar Ber Ryback, Marc Chagall, and Chaim Goldberg. Kaplan, making his art in the Soviet Union, was quite taken by the romantic images of the Klezmer in literature, and in particular in Sholem Aleichem's Stempenyu, and depicted them in rich detail.<ref name="1972 Soviet ed">Template:Cite book</ref>

In filmEdit

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  • Itzhak Perlman: In the Fiddler's House (1996), aired 29 June 1996 on Great Performances (PBS/WNET television series)
  • L'homme est une femme comme les autres (1998, directed by Jean-Jacques Zilbermann with soundtrack by Giora Feidman)
  • Dummy (2002), directed by Greg Pritikin
  • Klezmer on Fish Street (2003), directed by Yale Strom
  • Le Tango des Rashevski (2003) directed by Sam Garbarski
  • Klezmer in Germany (2007), directed by Kryzstof Zanussi and C. Goldie
  • A Great Day on Eldridge Street (2008), directed by Yale Strom
  • The "Socalled" Movie (2010), directed by Garry Beitel

In literatureEdit

In Jewish literature, the klezmer was often represented as a romantic and somewhat unsavory figure.<ref name="Netsky 2015 9">Template:Cite book</ref> However, in nineteenth century works by writers such as Mendele Mocher Sforim and Sholem Aleichem they were also portrayed as great artists and virtuosos who delighted the masses.<ref name="Beregovski 1941" /> Klezmers also appeared in non-Jewish Eastern European literature, such as in the epic poem Pan Tadeusz, which depicted a character named Jankiel Cymbalist, or in the short stories of Leopold von Sacher-Masoch.<ref name="YIVO encylopedia article" /> In George Eliot's Daniel Deronda (1876), the German Jewish music teacher is named Herr Julius Klesmer.<ref name="Feldman 2016 60">Template:Cite book</ref> The novel was later adapted into a Yiddish musical by Avram Goldfaden titled Template:Transliteration (1908).<ref name="Heskes xix">Template:Cite book</ref>

See alsoEdit

ReferencesEdit

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External linksEdit

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