Fulgurite
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Fulgurites (Template:Etymology), commonly called "fossilized lightning", are natural tubes, clumps, or masses of sintered, vitrified, or fused soil, sand, rock, organic debris and other sediments that sometimes form when lightning discharges into ground. When composed of silica, fulgurites are classified as a variety of the mineraloid lechatelierite.
When ordinary negative polarity cloud-ground lightning discharges into a grounding substrate, greater than 100 million volts (100 MV) of potential difference may be bridged.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Such current may propagate into silica-rich quartzose sand, mixed soil, clay, or other sediments, rapidly vaporizing and melting resistant materials within such a common dissipation regime.<ref name="scholarcommons.usf.edu">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This results in the formation of generally hollow and/or vesicular, branching assemblages of glassy tubes, crusts, and clumped masses.<ref name="arizona.openrepository.com">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Fulgurites have no fixed composition because their chemical composition is determined by the physical and chemical properties of whatever material is being struck by lightning.
Fulgurites are structurally similar to Lichtenberg figures, which are the branching patterns produced on surfaces of insulators during dielectric breakdown by high-voltage discharges, such as lightning.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Lichtenberg">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
DescriptionEdit
Fulgurites are formed when lightning strikes the ground, fusing and vitrifying mineral grains.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The primary SiO2 phase in common tube fulgurites is lechatelierite, an amorphous silica glass. Many fulgurites show some evidence of crystallization: in addition to glasses, many are partially protocrystalline or microcrystalline. Because fulgurites are generally amorphous in structure, fulgurites are classified as mineraloids. Peak temperatures within a lightning channel exceed 30,000 K, with sufficient pressure to produce planar deformation features in SiO2, a kind of polymorphism. This is also known colloquially as shocked quartz.<ref name="ammin.geoscienceworld.org">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Material properties (size, color, texture) of fulgurites vary widely, depending on the size of the lightning bolt and the composition and moisture content of the surface struck by lightning. Most natural fulgurites fall on a spectrum from white to black. Iron is a common impurity that can result in a deep brownish-green coloration. Lechatelierite similar to fulgurites can also be produced via controlled (or uncontrolled) arcing of artificial electricity into a medium. Downed high voltage power lines have produced brightly colored lechatelierites, due to the incorporation of copper or other materials from the power lines.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Brightly colored lechatelierites resembling fulgurites are usually synthetic and reflect the incorporation of synthetic materials. However, lightning can strike man-made objects, resulting in colored fulgurites.
The interior of Type I (sand) fulgurites normally is smooth or lined with fine bubbles, while their exteriors are coated with rough sedimentary particles or small rocks. Other types of fulgurites are usually vesicular, and may lack an open central tube; their exteriors can be porous or smooth. Branching fulgurites display fractal-like self-similarity and structural scale invariance as a macroscopic or microscopic network of root-like branches, and can display this texture without central channels or obvious divergence from morphology of context or target (e.g. sheet-like melt, rock fulgurites). Fulgurites are usually fragile, making the field collection of large specimens difficult.
Fulgurites can exceed 20 centimeters in diameter and can penetrate deep into the subsoil, sometimes occurring as far as Template:Convert below the surface that was struck,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> although they may also form directly on a sedimentary surface.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> One of the longest fulgurites to have been found in modern times was a little over Template:Convert in length, found in northern Florida.<ref name="grapes">Template:Cite book</ref> The Yale University Peabody Museum of Natural History displays one of the longest known preserved fulgurites, approximately Template:Convert in length.<ref name=YBC>Template:Cite journal</ref> Charles Darwin in The Voyage of the Beagle recorded that tubes such as these found in Drigg, Cumberland, UK reached a length of Template:Convert.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Fulgerites at Winans Lake, Livingston County, Michigan, extended discontinuously throughout a 30 m range and arguably include the largest reported fulgurite mass ever recovered and described: its largest section extending approximately 16 ft (4.88 m) in length by 1 ft in diameter (30 cm).<ref name="arizona.openrepository.com"/><ref name="Lightning strike fusion: extreme reduction and metal-silicate liquid immiscibility">Template:Cite journal</ref>
ClassificationEdit
Fulgurites have been classified<ref name="Fulgurite morphology: a classification scheme and clues to formation">Template:Cite journal</ref> into five types related to the type of sediment in which the fulgurite formed, as follows:
- Type I – sand fulgurites with tubaceous structure; their central axial void may be collapsed
- Type II – soil fulgurites; these are glass-rich, and form in a wide range of sediment compositions, including clay-rich soils, silt-rich soils, gravel-rich soils, and loessoid; these may be tubaceous, branching, vesicular, irregular/slaggy, or may display a combination of these structures, and can produce exogenic fulgurites (droplet fulgurites)
- Type III – caliche or calcic sediment fulgurites, having thick, often surficially glazed granular walls with calcium-rich vitreous groundmass with little or no lechatelierite glass; their shapes are variable, with multiple narrow central channels common, and can span the entire range of morphological and structural variation for fulguritic objects
- Type IV – rock fulgurites, which are either crusts on minimally altered rocks, networks of tunneling within rocks, vesicular outgassed rocks (often glazed by a silicide-rich and/or metal oxide crust), or completely vitrified and dense rock material and masses of these forms with little sedimentary groundmass
- Type V – [droplet] fulgurites (exogenic fulgurites), which show evidence of ejection (e.g. spheroidal, filamentous, or aerodynamic),<ref name="Fulgurite morphology: a classification scheme and clues to formation" /> related by composition to Type II and Type IV fulgurites
- phytofulgurite – a proposed class of objects resulting from partial to total alteration of biomass (e.g. grasses, lichens, moss, wood) by lightning,<ref name="Newly formed minerals of the Fe-P-S system in Kolyma fulgurite">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Phytofulgurites: A new type of geological formations">Template:Cite journal</ref> described as "natural glasses formed by cloud-to-ground lightning." These were excluded from the classification scheme because they are not glasses, so classifying them as a subset of fulgurites is debatable.<ref name="Fulgurite morphology: a classification scheme and clues to formation">Template:Cite journal</ref>
SignificanceEdit
The presence of fulgurites in an area can be used to estimate the frequency of lightning over a period of time, which can help to understand past regional climates. Paleolightning is the study of various indicators of past lightning strikes, primarily in the form of fulgurites and lightning-induced remanent magnetization signatures.<ref name="Sponholz" />
Many high-pressure, high-temperature materials have been observed in fulgurites. Many of these minerals and compounds are also known to be formed in extreme environments such as nuclear weapon tests, hypervelocity impacts, and interstellar space. Shocked quartz was first described in fulgurites in 1980.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Other materials, including highly reduced silicon-metal alloys (silicides), the fullerene allotropes C60 (buckminsterfullerenes) and C70, as well as high-pressure polymorphs of SiO2, have since been identified in fulgurites.<ref name="arizona.openrepository.com"/><ref name="ammin.geoscienceworld.org"/><ref name="Lightning strike fusion: extreme reduction and metal-silicate liquid immiscibility"/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=ngeo580>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Reduced phosphides have been identified in fulgurites, in the form of schreibersite (Template:Chem2 and Template:Chem2), and titanium(III) phosphide.<ref name="arizona.openrepository.com" /><ref name="ngeo580" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> These reduced compounds are otherwise rare on Earth due to the presence of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere, which creates oxidizing surface conditions.
HistoryEdit
Fulgurite tubes have been mentioned already by Persian polymaths Avicenna and Al-Biruni in the 11th century, without knowing their true origination.<ref>Template:Cite journal </ref> Over the following centuries fulgurites have been described but missinterpreted as a result of subterrestrial fires, falsely attributing curative powers to them, e.g. by Leonhard David Hermann 1711 in his Maslographia.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Other famous natural scientists, among them Charles Darwin, Horace Bénédict de Saussure and Alexander von Humboldt gave attention to fulgurites, without discovering the relationship to lightning.
In 1805 the true process of forming fulgurites by lightning strikes to the ground was identified by agriculturist Hentzen and mineralogist and mining engineer Johann Karl Wilhelm Voigt.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In 1817 mineralogist and mining engineer Karl Gustav Fiedler published and comprehensively documented the phenomenon in the Annalen der Physik.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
See alsoEdit
ReferencesEdit
External linksEdit
- H. J. Melosh, "Impact geologists, beware!" (Template:Webarchive). Geophysical Research Letters, Volume 44, Issue 17, pp. 8873–8874, 2017
- Petrified Lightning by Peter E. Viemeister (PDF)
- Interview with artist Allan McCollum along with an historical archive of 66 versions of booklets included in Allan McCollum's exhibition, The Event: Petrified Lightning from Central Florida
- Mindat with location data
- W. M. Myers and Albert B. Peck, "A Fulgurite from South Amboy, New Jersey", American Mineralogist, Volume 10, pages 152–155, 1925
- Vladimir A. Rakov, "Lightning Makes Glass", 29th Annual Conference of the Glass Art Society, Tampa, Florida, 1999