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Funj Sultanate

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Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates {{#invoke:Infobox|infoboxTemplate |templatestyles = Template:Infobox country/styles.css | bodyclass = ib-country vcard | aboveclass = adr | above = {{#if:Funj Sultanateالسلطنة الزرقاء Template:In lang
As-Saltana az-Zarqa 

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Funj Sultanate
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As-Saltana az-Zarqa

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              |Micronation
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| subheader = {{#if: | {{{life_span}}} | {{#if:1504|1504{{#if:1821|–1821 }} }} }}

| image1 = {{#if:Royal Funj "wasm" (branding mark).png 

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The Funj Sultanate at its peak in around 1700

}} }}

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and largest city
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Nubian languages (native tongue, increasingly replaced by Arabic)Template:Sfn


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| data20 = Sunni Islam,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Coptic Christianity

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• 

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Website
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| label135 = Today part of | data135 = Sudan
Eritrea
Ethiopia

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| data138 = {{#if:<templatestyles src="Citation/styles.css"/>^{{#if:| }} a. Muhammad Ali of Egypt was granted the non-hereditary governorship of Sudan by an 1841 Ottoman firman.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> <templatestyles src="Citation/styles.css"/>^{{#if:| }} b. Estimate for entire area covered by modern Sudan.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

<templatestyles src="Citation/styles.css"/>^{{#if:| }} c. The Funj mostly did not mint coins and the markets rarely used coinage as a form of exchange.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Coinage didn't become widespread in cities until the 18th century. French surgeon J. C. Poncet, who visited Sennar in 1699, mentions the use of foreign coins such as Spanish reals.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>|

<templatestyles src="Citation/styles.css"/>^{{#if:| }} a. Muhammad Ali of Egypt was granted the non-hereditary governorship of Sudan by an 1841 Ottoman firman.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> <templatestyles src="Citation/styles.css"/>^{{#if:| }} b. Estimate for entire area covered by modern Sudan.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

<templatestyles src="Citation/styles.css"/>^{{#if:| }} c. The Funj mostly did not mint coins and the markets rarely used coinage as a form of exchange.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Coinage didn't become widespread in cities until the 18th century. French surgeon J. C. Poncet, who visited Sennar in 1699, mentions the use of foreign coins such as Spanish reals.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>{{#if:|
{{{footnotes2}}}}}

}}

| belowclass = mergedtoprow noprint | below = {{#if:| Template:Navbar }} }}{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Infobox country with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| admin_center_type | admin_center | alt_coat | alt_flag | alt_flag2 | alt_map | alt_map2 | alt_map3 | alt_symbol | anthem | anthems | antipodes | area_acre | area_data2 | area_data3 | area_footnote | area_ha | area_km2 | area_label | area_label2 | area_label3 | area_land_acre | area_land_footnote | area_land_ha | area_land_km2 | area_land_sq_mi | area_link | area_rank | area_sq_mi | area_water_acre | area_water_footnote | area_water_ha | area_water_km2 | area_water_sq_mi | regexp1 = border_[ps][%d]+ | calling_code | capital_exile | capital_type | capital | cctld | coa_size | coat_alt | common_languages | common_name | conventional_long_name | coordinates | currency_code | currency | date_end | regexp2 = date_event[%d]+ | date_format | date_post | date_pre | date_start | demonym | regexp3 = deputy[%d]+ | drives_on | DST_note | DST | empire | englishmotto | era | regexp4 = established_date[%d]+ | regexp5 = established_event[%d]+ | established | ethnic_groups_ref | ethnic_groups_year | ethnic_groups | event_end | event_post | event_pre | event_start | regexp6 = event[%d]+ | flag| flag_alt | flag_alt2 | flag_border | flag_caption | flag_caption | regexp7 = flag_[ps][%d]+ | flag_size | flag_type | flag_type_article | flag_width | flag2_border | regexp8 = footnote_[a-h] | regexp9 = footnote[%d]+ | footnotes | footnotes2 | FR_cadastre_area_km2 | FR_cadastre_area_rank | FR_cadastre_area_sq_mi | FR_foot | FR_foot2 | FR_foot3 | FR_foot4 | FR_foot5 | FR_IGN_area_km2 | FR_IGN_area_rank | FR_IGN_area_sq_mi | FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank | FR_metropole_population | FR_metropole | FR_total_population_estimate_rank | FR_total_population_estimate_year | FR_total_population_estimate | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank | GDP_nominal_per_capita | GDP_nominal_rank | GDP_nominal_year | GDP_nominal | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank | GDP_PPP_per_capita | GDP_PPP_rank | GDP_PPP_year | GDP_PPP | Gini_change | Gini_rank | Gini_ref | Gini_year | Gini | government_type | HDI_change | HDI_rank | HDI_ref | HDI_year | HDI | house1 | house2 | image_coat | image_flag | image_flag2 | image_map_alt | image_map_caption | image_map_size | image_map | image_map2_alt | image_map2_caption | image_map2_size | image_map2 | image_map3 | regexp10 = image_[ps][%d]+ | image_symbol | iso3166code | languages_sub | languages_type | languages | languages2_sub | languages2_type | languages2 | largest_city | largest_settlement_type | largest_settlement | regexp11 = leader_name[%d]+ | regexp12 = leader_title[%d]+ | regexp13 = leader[%d]+ | legislature | life_span | linking_name | location_map | loctext | lower_house | map_caption | map_caption2 | map_caption3 | map_width | map2_width | map3_width | membership_type | membership | micronation | motto | name | national_anthem | national_languages | national_motto | native_name | navbar | nummembers | official_languages | official_website | org_type | other_symbol_type | other_symbol | regexp14 = [ps][%d]+ | patron_saint | patron_saints | percent_water | politics_link | pop_den_footnote | population_census_rank | population_census_year | population_census | population_data2 | population_data3 | population_density_km2 | population_density_rank | population_density_sq_mi | population_estimate_rank | population_estimate_year | population_estimate | population_label2 | population_label3 | population_link | recognised_languages | recognised_national_languages | recognised_regional_languages | recognized_languages | recognized_national_languages | regexp15 = ref_area[%d]+ | regexp16 = ref_pop[%d]+ | regional_languages | recognized_regional_languages | religion_ref | religion_year | religion | regexp17 = representative[%d]+ | royal_anthem | flag_anthem | march | national_march | regional_anthem | territorial_anthem | state_anthem | sovereignty_note | sovereignty_type | regexp18 = stat_area[%d]+ | regexp19 = stat_pop[%d]+ | regexp20 = stat_year[%d]+ | status_text | status | symbol| symbol_type_article | symbol_type | symbol_width | text_symbol_type | text_symbol | time_zone_DST | time_zone | title_deputy | title_leader | title_representative | today | type_house1 | type_house2 | upper_house | utc_offset_DST | utc_offset | regexp21 = year_deputy[%d]+ | year_end | year_exile_end | year_exile_start | regexp22 = year_leader[%d]+ | regexp23 = year_representative[%d]+ | year_start}}Template:Main other{{#if:Confederation of sultanates and dependent tribal emirates under Sennar's suzerainty <ref>Template:Country study</ref>|{{#ifeq:Confederation, vassal of Ottoman empire|Colony|Template:Main other|{{#ifeq:Confederation, vassal of Ottoman empire|Exile|Template:Main other}}}} }}

The Funj Sultanate, also known as Funjistan, Sultanate of Sennar (after its capital Sennar) or Blue Sultanate (due to the traditional Sudanese convention of referring to black people as blue)<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> (Template:Langx),<ref>Ogot 1999, p. 91</ref> was a monarchy in what is now Sudan, northwestern Eritrea and western Ethiopia. Founded in 1504 by the Funj people, it quickly converted to Islam, although this conversion was only nominal. Until a more orthodox form of Islam took hold in the 18th century, the state remained an "African empire with a Muslim façade".Template:Sfn It reached its peak in the late 17th century, but declined and eventually fell apart in the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1821, the last sultan, greatly reduced in power, surrendered to the Ottoman Egyptian invasion without a fight.<ref name="Moorehead"/>

HistoryEdit

OriginsEdit

Christian Nubia, represented by the two medieval kingdoms of Makuria and Alodia, began to decline from the 12th century.Template:Sfn By 1365 Makuria had virtually collapsed and was reduced to a rump state restricted to Lower Nubia, until finally disappearing Template:Circa 150 years later.Template:Sfn The fate of Alodia is less clear.Template:Sfn It has been suggested that it had collapsed as early as the 12th century or shortly after, as archaeology suggests that in this period, Soba ceased to be used as its capital.Template:Sfn By the 13th century central Sudan seemed to have disintegrated into various petty states.Template:Sfn Between the 14th and 15th centuries Sudan was overrun by Bedouin tribes.Template:Sfn In the 15th century one of these Bedouins, whom Sudanese traditions refer to as Abdallah Jammah, is recorded to have created a tribal federation and to have subsequently destroyed what was left of Alodia. In the early 16th century Abdallah's federation came under attack from an invader to the south, the Funj.Template:Sfn

The ethnic affiliation of the Funj is still disputed. The first and second of the three most prominent theories suggest that they were either Nubians or Shilluk, while, according to the third theory, the Funj were not an ethnic group, but a social class.Template:Citation needed

In the 14th century a Muslim Funj trader named al-Hajj Faraj al-Funi was involved in the Red Sea trade.Template:Sfn According to oral traditions the Dinka, who migrated upstream the White and Blue Nile since the 13th-century disintegration of Alodia, came in conflict with the Funj, who the Dinka defeated.Template:Sfn In the late 15th/early 16th century the Shilluk arrived at the junction of the Sobat and the White Nile, where they encountered a sedentary people Shilluk traditions refer to as Apfuny, Obwongo and/or Dongo, a people now equated with the Funj. Said to be more sophisticated than the Shilluk, they were defeated in a series of brutal warsTemplate:Sfn and either assimilated or pushed north.Template:Sfn Anti-Funj propaganda from the later period of the kingdom referred to the Funj as "pagans from the White Nile" and "barbarians" who had originated from the "primitive southern swamps".Template:Sfn

In 1504 the Funj defeated Abdallah Jammah and founded the Funj Sultanate.Template:Sfn

Ottoman threat and revolt of AjibEdit

File:A lady of Sennar.jpg
A young woman of Sennar

In 1523 the kingdom was visited by Jewish traveller David Reubeni, who disguised himself as a Sharif.Template:Sfn Sultan Amara Dunqas, Reubeni wrote, was continuously travelling through his kingdom. He, who "ruled over black people and white"Template:Sfn between the region south of the Nile confluence to as far north as Dongola,Template:Sfn owned large herds of various types of animals and commanded many captains on horseback.Template:Sfn Two years later, Ottoman admiral Selman Reis mentioned Amara Dunqas and his kingdom, calling it weak and easily conquerable. He also stated that Amara paid an annual tribute of 9,000 camels to the Ethiopian Empire.Template:Sfn One year later the Ottomans occupied Sawakin,Template:Sfn which beforehand was associated with Sennar.Template:Sfn It seems that to counter the Ottoman expansion in the Red Sea region, the Funj engaged in an alliance with Ethiopia. Besides camels the Funj are known to have exported horses to Ethiopia, which were then used in war against the Adal Sultanate.Template:Sfn The borders of Funj were raided by Ahmed Gurey during the war taking many slaves before stopping near the Taka mountain range near modern-day Kassala. <ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Before the Ottomans gained a foothold in Ethiopia, in 1555, Özdemir Pasha was appointed Beylerbey of the (yet to be conquered) Habesh Eyalet. He attempted to march upstream along the Nile to conquer the Funj, but his troops revolted when they approached the first cataract of the Nile.Template:Sfn Until 1570, however, the Ottomans had established themselves in Qasr Ibrim in Lower Nubia, most likely a preemptive move to secure Upper Egypt from Funj aggression.Template:Sfn Fourteen years later they had pushed as far south as the third cataract of the Nile and subsequently attempted to conquer Dongola, but, in 1585, were crushed by the Funj at the battle of Hannik.Template:Sfn Afterwards, the battlefield, which was located just south of the third Nile cataract, would mark the border between the two kingdoms.Template:Sfn In the late 16th century the Funj pushed towards the Habesh Eyalet, conquering north-western Eritrea.Template:Sfn Failing to make progress against both the Funj Sultanate and Ethiopia, the Ottomans abandoned their policy of expansion.Template:Sfn Thus, from the 1590s onwards, the Ottoman threat vanished, rendering the Funj-Ethiopian alliance unnecessary, and relations between the two states were about to turn into open hostility.Template:Sfn As late as 1597, however, the relations were still described as friendly, with trade flourishing.Template:Sfn

In the meantime, the rule of sultan Dakin (1568–1585) saw the rise of Ajib, a minor king of northern Nubia. When Dakin returned from a failed campaign in the Ethiopian–Sudanese borderlands Ajib had acquired enough power to demand and receive greater political autonomy. A few years later he forced sultan Tayyib to marry his daughter, effectively making Tayyib and his offspring and successor, Unsa, his vassals. Unsa was eventually deposed in 1603/1604 by Abd al-Qadir II, triggering Ajib to invade the Funj heartland. His armies pushed the Funj king to the south-east. Thus, Ajib effectively ruled over an empire reaching from Dongola to Ethiopia. Abd el-Qadir II, eventually deposed in December 1606, fled to Ethiopia and submitted to emperor Susenyos,Template:Sfn providing Susenyos with an opportunity to intervene in the sultanate's affairs.Template:Sfn However, the new Funj sultan, Adlan I, managed to turn the tide of war against Ajib,Template:Sfn eventually killing him in 1611 or 1612.Template:Sfn While chasing the remnants of Ajib's army to the north, Adlan II himself was deposed and succeeded by a son of the former sultan Abd al-Qadir II, Badi I. He issued a peace treaty with the sons of Ajib, agreeing to factually split the Funj state. The successors of Ajib, the Abdallab, would receive everything north of the confluence of Blue and White Nile, which they would rule as vassal kings of Sennar. Therefore, the Funj lost direct control over much of their kingdom.Template:Sfn

In 1618-1619 Bahr Negash Gebre Mariam, ruler of the Medri Bahri, helped Emperor Susneyos in a military campaign against the Sennar Sultanate. Emperor Susneyos sent Bahr Gebre to attack Mandara whose queen, Fatima, controlled a strategic caravan road from Suakin. The Bahr Negash was successful in capturing Queen Fatima, which he sent back to Emperor Susenyos' palace in Danqaz (Gorgora) and she renewed submission to the Ethiopian Empire.<ref name=":1">James Bruce, Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, vol. 2.</ref>

17th century peakEdit

File:Court of Badi of Sennar (cropped).jpg
Contemporary albeit romanticizing depiction of Sultan Badi III receiving Theodor Krump. Over 100 years later an eyewitness would describe Badi VII, the last Funj king, as wearing a robe and a tunic and horned cap of rich Indian fabric. He rode a horse with a harness decorated with gold and silver and a plume made of ostrich feathers.Template:Sfn

The submission of Abd al-Qadir II to the Ethiopian emperor and the possibility of a consequential invasion remained a problem for the Funj sultans. Adlan I had apparently been too weak to do something against this situation, but Badi I was able to take matters into his own hands.Template:Sfn A rich present by Susenyos, which he perhaps sent in the belief that the successors of Abd al-Qadir II would honour the submission of the latter, was rudely answered with two lame horses and first raids of Ethiopian posts.Template:Sfn Susenyos, occupied elsewhere, would not respond to that act of aggression until 1617 when he raided several Funj provinces. This mutual raiding finally escalated into a full-fledged war in 1618 and 1619, resulting in the devastation of many of the Funj eastern provinces.Template:Sfn A pitched battle was also fought, claimed by the Ethiopian sources to have been a victory, albeit this is posed doubtful by the fact that the Ethiopian troops retreated immediately afterwards. After the war, the two countries remained at peace for over a century.Template:Sfn

The Funj sultan who ruled during the war, Rabat I, was the first in a series of three monarchs under whom the sultanate entered a period of prosperity, expansion and increased contacts with the outside world, but was also confronted with several new problems.Template:Sfn

In the 17th century, the Shilluk and Sennar were forced into an uneasy alliance to combat the growing might of the Dinka. After the alliance had run its cause, in 1650, Sultan Badi II occupied the northern half of the Shilluk Kingdom.Template:Sfn Under his rule the Funj defeated the Kingdom of Taqali to the west and made its ruler his vassal.Template:Citation needed

DeclineEdit

Template:Contradicts other Template:See also

File:Sudanese woman ("Book of Women").jpg
A Sudanese woman in an Ottoman miniature from the late 18th century

Sennar was at its peak at the end of the 17th century, but during the 18th century, it began to decline as the power of the monarchy was eroded. The greatest challenge to the authority of the king were the merchant funded Ulama who insisted it was rightfully their duty to mete out justice.Template:Citation needed

In about 1718 the previous dynasty, the Unsab, was overthrown in a coup and replaced by Nul, who, although related to the previous Sultan, effectively founded a dynasty on his own.Template:Sfn

In 1741 and 1743 the young Ethiopian emperor Iyasu II conducted raids westwards, attempting to acquire quick military fame. In March 1744 he assembled an army of 30,000–100,000 men for a new expedition, which was initially intended as yet another raid, but soon turned into a war of conquest.Template:Sfn On the banks of the Dinder river the two states fought a pitched battle, which went in favour of Sennar.Template:Sfn Traveller James Bruce noted that Iyasu II, plundered his way back to Ethiopia, allowing him to display his campaign as a success.Template:Sfn Meanwhile, Badi IV's repulsion of the Ethiopian invasion made him a national hero.Template:Sfn Hostilities between the two states continued until the end of Iyasu II's reign in 1755, tensions caused by this war were still recorded in 1773.Template:Sfn Trade, however, soon resumed after the conflict, although on reduced scale.Template:Sfn

File:Sennar palace (cropped).jpg
At the time of the Egyptian invasion in 1821 the palace of Sennar was already in ruins.

It has been suggested that it was Badi's victory over the Ethiopians that strengthened his power;Template:Sfn in 1743/1744 he is known to have had his vizier executed and to have taken the reins.Template:Sfn He attempted to create a new power base by purging the previous ruling clan, stripping the nobility of their land and instead empowering clients from the western and southern periphery of his realm. One of these clients was Muhammad Abu Likaylik, a Hamaj (a generic Sudannese term applied to the pre-Funj, non-Arabic or semi-Arabized people of the Gezira and Ethiopian-Sudanese borderlands)Template:Sfn from east of Fazughli who was granted land immediately south of Sennar in 1747/1748.Template:Sfn He was a cavalry commander tasked to pacify Kordofan, which had become a battlefield between the Funj and the Musabb’at, refugees from the Sultanate of Darfur.Template:Sfn The Fur had the upper hand until 1755, when Abu Likayik finally managed to overrun Kordofan and turn it into his new powerbase.Template:Sfn In the meantime, Sultan Badi grew increasingly unpopular due to his repressive measures. Eventually, Abu Likayik was convinced by disaffected Funj noblemen, many of them residing in Kordofan, to march on the capital. In 1760/1761 he reached Alays at the White Nile, where a council was held in which Badi was formally deposed.Template:Sfn Afterwards, he besieged Sennar, which he entered on 27 March 1762.Template:Sfn Badi fled to Ethiopia but was murdered in 1763.Template:Sfn Thus began the Hamaj Regency, where the Funj monarchs became puppets of the Hamaj.Template:Sfn

File:Le roi de Sennâr donnant audience à ses ministres.jpg
A Funj king of Sennar and his ministers as represented in a book by Félix Mengin, 1823

Abu Likayik installed another member of the royal family as his puppet sultan and ruled as regent. This began a long conflict between the Funj sultans attempting to reassert their independence and authority and the Hamaj regents attempting to maintain control of the true power of the state. These internal divisions greatly weakened the state and in the late 18th century Mek Adlan II, son of Mek Taifara, took power during a turbulent time at which a Turkish presence was being established in the Funj kingdom. The Turkish ruler, Al-Tahir Agha, married Khadeeja, daughter of Mek Adlan II. This paved the way for the assimilation of the Funj into the Ottoman Empire.Template:Citation needed

File:Sennar in 1821.jpg
Sennar in 1821

The later 18th century saw a rapid disintegration of the Funj state. In 1785/1786 the Fur Sultanate conquered Kordofan which it managed to hold until the Egyptian invasion of 1821.Template:Sfn In the second half of the 18th century Sennar lost the Tigre in what is now Eritrea to the rising naib ("deputy") of Massawa,Template:Sfn while after 1791 Taka around the Sudanese Mareb River made itself independent.Template:Sfn The Shukriya became the new dominant power in the Butana.Template:Citation needed The long isolated province of Dongola finally fell to the Shaiqiya in around 1782, who installed a loyal puppet dynasty.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn After 1802, the authority of the sultanate was limited to the Gezira for good.Template:Sfn In the early years of the 19th century the kingdom was plagued by excessive civil wars. Regent Muhammad Adlan, who rose to power in 1808 and whose father had been assassinated by a warlord of that period, was able to put an end to these wars and managed to stabilize the kingdom for another 13 years.Template:Sfn

File:Préliminaires cérémonieux de l'entrevue d'un chef nègre avec un roi sennarien.png
After the conquest of Sennar, the Funj became Egyptian vassal kings ruling the mountains of the central Gezira. On this depiction from the mid-19th century, a Funj king (on horseback) meets a local chief

In 1820, Ismail bin Muhammad Ali, the general and son of the nominally Ottoman vassal Muhammad Ali Pasha, began the conquest of Sudan. Realizing that the Turks were about to conquer his domain, Muhammad Adlan prepared to resist and ordered to muster the army at the Nile confluence, but he fell to a plot near Sennar in early 1821. One of the murderers, a man named Daf'Allah, rode back to the capital to prepare Sultan Badi VII's submission ceremony to the Turks.Template:Sfn The Turks reached the Nile confluence in May 1821. Afterwards, they travelled upstream the Blue Nile until reaching Sennar.Template:Sfn They were disappointed to learn that Sennar, once enjoying a reputation of wealth and splendour, was now reduced to a heap of ruins.Template:Sfn On 14 June they received the official submission of Badi VII.<ref name="Moorehead">Alan Moorehead, The Blue Nile, revised edition (New York: Harper and Row, 1972), p. 215</ref>

GovernmentEdit

AdministrationEdit

File:King sennar 1821.jpg
A manjil of Fazughli

The sultans of Sennar were powerful, but not absolutely so, as a council of 20 elders also had a say in state decisions. Below the king stood the chief minister, the amin, and the jundi, who supervised the market and acted as commander of the state police and intelligence service. Another high court official was the sid al-qum, a royal bodyguard and executioner. Only he was allowed to shed royal blood, as he was tasked to kill all brothers of a freshly elected king to prevent civil wars.Template:Sfn

The state was divided into several provinces governed by a manjil. Each of these province was again divided into sub-provinces governed by a makk, each of them subordinated to their respective manjil. The most important manjil was that of the Abdallabs, followed by Alays at the White Nile, the kings of the Blue Nile region and finally the rest. The king of Sennar exercised his influence among the manjils forcing them to marry a woman from the royal clan, which acted as royal spies. A member of the royal clan also always sat at their side, observing their behaviour. Furthermore, the manjils had to travel to Sennar every year to pay tribute and account for their deeds.Template:Sfn

It was under king Badi II when Sennar became the fixed capital of the state and when written documents concerning administrative matters appeared, with the oldest known one dating to 1654.Template:Sfn

MilitaryEdit

File:Shukuri knight.png
An armoured Shukuri horseman in 1879
File:Sword Nasir ibn Badi IV NCAM KH394.jpg
Sword of Nasir ibn Badi IV. National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums of Sudan.

The army of Sennar was feudal. Each noble house could field a military unit measured in its power by its horsemen. The population, although generally armed, was only rarely called to war, in cases of uttermost need. Most Funj warriors were slaves traditionally captured in annual slave raids called salatiya,Template:Sfn targeting the stateless non-Muslims in the Nuba mountains pejoratively referred to as Fartit.Template:Sfn The army was divided into infantry, represented by an official called muqaddam al-qawawid, and cavalry, represented by the muqaddam al-khayl.Template:Sfn The Sultan rarely led armies into battle and instead appointed a commander for the duration of the campaign, called amin jaysh al-sultan.Template:Sfn At its peak the Funj Sultanate was probably able to field about 5,000 horsemen, while in 1772 James Bruce estimated that lightly armed slave warriors fighting as infantry amounted to about 14,000 men.Template:Sfn Nomadic warriors fighting for the Funj had an own appointed leader, the aqid or qa’id.Template:Sfn Shilluk and Dinka mercenaries were also utilized.Template:Sfn

The weaponry of the Funj warriors consisted of thrusting lances, throwing knives, javelins, hide shields and, most importantly, long broadswords which could be wielded with two hands. Body armour consisted of leather or quilts and additionally mail, while the hands were protected by leather gloves. On the heads iron or copper helmets were worn. The horses were also armoured, wearing thick quilts, copper headgear and breast plates. While armour was also manufactured locally, it was at times imported as well.Template:Sfn In the late 17th century Sultan Badi III attempted to modernize the army by importing firearms and even cannons, but they were quickly disregarded after his death not only because the import was expensive and unreliable, but also because the traditionally armed elites feared for their power.Template:Sfn James Bruce remarked that the Sultan had "not one musket in his whole army".Template:Sfn 40 years later Johann Ludwig Burckhardt noted that Mek Nimr, the now independent lord of Shendi, maintained a small force of slaves armed with muskets bought or stolen from Egyptian merchants. While they were in bad shape their mere display was enough to cause terror among Nimr's enemies.Template:Sfn In 1820 the Shaiqiya were said to have a few pistols and guns, although the overwhelming majority still used traditional weapons.Template:Sfn

CultureEdit

ReligionEdit

IslamEdit

File:Mosque of Sennar (Prudhoe).jpg
The mosque of Sennar in 1829
File:Sudanese mosque, mid-19th century.jpg
Simple village mosque in Upper Nubia, mid-19th century

By the time of the visit by David Reubeni in 1523, the Funj, originally Pagans or syncretic Christians, had converted to Islam. They probably converted to ease their rule over their Muslim subjects and to facilitate trade with neighbouring countries like Egypt.Template:Sfn Their embracement of Islam was only nominal and, in fact, the Funj effectively even delayed the Islamization of Nubia, as they temporarily strengthened African sacral traditions instead.Template:Sfn The monarchy they established was divine, similar to that of many other African states:Template:Sfn The Funj Sultan had hundreds of wivesTemplate:Sfn and spent most of his reign within the palace, secluded from his subjectsTemplate:Sfn and maintaining contact only with a handful of officials.Template:Sfn He was not allowed to be seen eating. On the rare occasion he appeared in public he did so only with a veil and accompanied by much pomp.Template:Sfn The Sultan was judged regularly and, if found wanting, could be executed.Template:Sfn All Funj, but especially the Sultan, were believed to be able to detect sorcery. Islamic talismans written in Sennar were believed to have special powers due to the proximity to the Sultan.Template:Sfn Among the populace even the basics of Islamic faith were not widely known.Template:Sfn Pork and beer were consumed as staple food throughout much of the kingdom,Template:Sfn the death of an important individual would be mourned by "communal dancing, self-mutilation and rolling in the ashes of the feast-fire".Template:Sfn At least in some regions, elderly, crippled and others who believed to be a burden for their relatives and friends were expected to request to be buried alive or otherwise disposed.Template:Sfn As late as the late 17th century the Funj Sultanate was still recorded to not follow the "laws of the Turks”, i. e. Islam.Template:Sfn Thus, until the 18th century Islam was not much more than a facade.Template:Sfn

Despite this, the Funj acted as sponsors of Islam from the very beginning, encouraging the settlement of Muslim holy men in their domain. In the later period civil wars forced the peasants to look to the holy men for protection; the sultans lost the peasant population to the Ulama.Template:Citation needed

ChristianityEdit

File:Banganarti church, Sudan (cropped).jpg
The 11th century church of Banganarti, formerly one of Christian Nubia's most important pilgrimage centres, remained a place of worship and habitation until the late 16th century.Template:Sfn

The collapse of the Christian Nubian states went hand in hand with the collapse of the Christian institutions.Template:Sfn The Christian faith, however, would continue to exist, although gradually declining.Template:Efn By the sixteenth century large portions of Nubia's population would still have been Christian. Dongola, the former capital and Christian center of the Makurian kingdom,Template:Sfn was recorded to have been largely Islamized by the turn of the 16th century,Template:Efn although a Franciscan letter confirms the existence of a community immediately south of Dongola practicing a "debased Christianity" as late as 1742.Template:Sfn According to the 1699 account of Poncet, Muslims reacted to meeting Christians in the streets of Sennar by reciting the Shahada.Template:Sfn The Fazughli region seems to have been Christian at least for one generation after its conquest in 1685; a Christian principality was mentioned in the region as late as 1773.Template:Sfn The Tigre in north-western Eritrea, who were part of the Beni Amer confederation,Template:Sfn remained Christians until the 19th century.Template:Sfn Rituals stemming from Christian traditions outlived the conversion to IslamTemplate:Sfn and were still practiced as late as the 20th century.Template:Efn

From the 17th century foreign Christian groups, mostly merchants, were present in Sennar, including Copts, Ethiopians, Greeks, Armenians and Portuguese.Template:Sfn The sultanate also served as interstation for Ethiopian Christians travelling to Egypt and the Holy Land as well as European missionaries travelling to Ethiopia.Template:Sfn

LanguagesEdit

Template:See also In the Christian period, Nubian languages had been spoken between the region from Aswan in the north to an undetermined point south of the confluence of the Blue and White Nile.Template:Sfn They remained important during the Funj period, but were gradually superseded by Arabic.Template:Sfn This process was largely accomplished in central Sudan by the 19th century,Template:Sfn although even then there were limited reports of Nubian still being spoken as far south as the 5th cataract, if not Shendi.Template:Sfn

After the Funj conversion to Islam, Arabic grew to become the lingua franca of administration and trade while also being employed as language of religion. While the royal court would continue to speak their pre-Arabic language for some timeTemplate:Sfn by Template:Circa 1700, the language of communication at the court had become Arabic.Template:Sfn In the 18th century, Arabic became the written language of state administration. As late as 1821, when the kingdom fell, some provincial noblemen were still not capable of speaking Arabic.Template:Sfn Evliya Çelebi (17th century) and Joseph Russegger (mid 19th century) described a pre-Arabic language in the Funj heartland.Template:Sfn Çelebi provided a listing of numerals as well as a poem, both written in Arabic script; the numerals are clearly Kanuri, while the language used for the poem remains unidentified.Template:Sfn Russegger stated that a Fungi language, sounding similar to Nubian and having absorbed many Arabic words, was spoken as far north as Khartoum, albeit already reduced to a secondary role compared to Arabic.Template:Sfn In Kordofan, Nubian was still spoken as primary or at least secondary language as late as the 1820s and 1830s.Template:Sfn

TradeEdit

During the reign of sultan Badi III in the late 17th and early 18th century the prosperous and cosmopolitan capital of Sennar was described as "close to being the greatest trading city" in all Africa.Template:Sfn The wealth and power of the sultans had long rested on the control of the economy. All caravans were controlled by the monarch, as was the gold supply that functioned as the state's main currency. Important revenues came from customs dues levied on the caravan routers leading to Egypt and the Red Sea ports and on the pilgrimage traffic from the Western Sudan. In the late 17th century the Funj had opened up trading with the Ottoman Empire. In the late 17th century with the introduction of coinage, an unregulated market system took hold, and the sultans lost control of the market to a new merchant middle class. Foreign currencies became widely used by merchants breaking the power of the monarch to closely control the economy. The thriving trade created a wealthy class of educated and literate merchants, who read widely about Islam and became much concerned about the lack of orthodoxy in the kingdom.<ref>Lapidus</ref> The Sultanate also did their best to monopolize the slave trade to Egypt, most notably through the annual caravan of up to one thousand slaves. This monopoly was most successful in the seventeenth century, although it still worked to some extent in the eighteenth.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

RulersEdit

The rulers of Sennar held the title of Mek (sultan). Their regnal numbers vary from source to source.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Template:Div col

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Hamaj regentsEdit

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MapsEdit

See alsoEdit

AnnotationsEdit

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ReferencesEdit

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BibliographyEdit

Further readingEdit

Template:History of Nubia footerTemplate:Sahelian kingdoms Template:Authority control

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