Standard gravitational parameter

Template:Short description

Body	μ [m³ s⁻²]
Sun	Template:Val	× 10²⁰ <ref name="Astrodynamic Constants" />
Mercury	Template:Val	× 10¹³ <ref name="Anderson" />
Venus	Template:Val	× 10¹⁴ <ref name="Konopliv99" />
Earth	Template:Val	× 10¹⁴ <ref name="IAU best estimates"/>
Moon	Template:Val	× 10¹²
Mars	Template:Val	× 10¹³ <ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Ceres	Template:Val	× 10¹⁰ <ref name="SPICE" /><ref name="Pitjeva2005" /><ref name="Britt2002" />
Jupiter	Template:Val	× 10¹⁷
Saturn	Template:Val	× 10¹⁶
Uranus	Template:Val	× 10¹⁵ <ref name="Jacobson1992" />
Neptune	Template:Val	× 10¹⁵
Pluto	Template:Val	× 10¹¹ <ref name="Buie06" />
Eris	Template:Val	× 10¹² <ref name="Brown Schaller 2007" />

The standard gravitational parameter μ of a celestial body is the product of the gravitational constant G and the mass M of that body. For two bodies, the parameter may be expressed as Template:Math, or as Template:Math when one body is much larger than the other: <math display="block">\mu=G(M+m)\approx GM .</math>

For several objects in the Solar System, the value of μ is known to greater accuracy than either G or M. The SI unit of the standard gravitational parameter is Template:Nowrap. However, the unit Template:Nowrap is frequently used in the scientific literature and in spacecraft navigation.

DefinitionEdit

Small body orbiting a central bodyEdit

Template:Solar system orbital period vs semimajor axis.svg The central body in an orbital system can be defined as the one whose mass (M) is much larger than the mass of the orbiting body (m), or Template:Nowrap. This approximation is standard for planets orbiting the Sun or most moons and greatly simplifies equations. Under Newton's law of universal gravitation, if the distance between the bodies is r, the force exerted on the smaller body is: <math display="block">F = \frac{G M m}{r^2} = \frac{\mu m}{r^2}</math>

Thus only the product of G and M is needed to predict the motion of the smaller body. Conversely, measurements of the smaller body's orbit only provide information on the product, μ, not G and M separately. The gravitational constant, G, is difficult to measure with high accuracy,<ref name=gillies>Template:Citation. A lengthy, detailed review.</ref> while orbits, at least in the solar system, can be measured with great precision and used to determine μ with similar precision.

For a circular orbit around a central body, where the centripetal force provided by gravity is Template:Nowrap: <math display="block">\mu = rv^2 = r^3\omega^2 = \frac{4\pi^2r^3}{T^2} ,</math> where r is the orbit radius, v is the orbital speed, ω is the angular speed, and T is the orbital period.

This can be generalized for elliptic orbits: <math display="block">\mu = \frac{4\pi^2a^3}{T^2} ,</math> where a is the semi-major axis, which is Kepler's third law.

For parabolic trajectories rv² is constant and equal to 2μ. For elliptic and hyperbolic orbits magnitude of μ = 2 times the magnitude of a times the magnitude of ε, where a is the semi-major axis and ε is the specific orbital energy.

General caseEdit

In the more general case where the bodies need not be a large one and a small one, e.g. a binary star system, we define:

the vector r is the position of one body relative to the other
r, v, and in the case of an elliptic orbit, the semi-major axis a, are defined accordingly (hence r is the distance)
μ = Gm₁ + Gm₂ = μ₁ + μ₂, where m₁ and m₂ are the masses of the two bodies.

Then:

for circular orbits, rv² = r³ω² = 4π²r³/T² = μ
for elliptic orbits, Template:Nowrap (with a expressed in AU; T in years and M the total mass relative to that of the Sun, we get Template:Nowrap)
for parabolic trajectories, rv² is constant and equal to 2μ
for elliptic and hyperbolic orbits, μ is twice the semi-major axis times the negative of the specific orbital energy, where the latter is defined as the total energy of the system divided by the reduced mass.

In a pendulumEdit

The standard gravitational parameter can be determined using a pendulum oscillating above the surface of a body as:<ref> Template:Citation</ref>

<math display="block">\mu \approx \frac{4 \pi^2 r^2 L}{T^2} </math> where r is the radius of the gravitating body, L is the length of the pendulum, and T is the period of the pendulum (for the reason of the approximation see Pendulum in mechanics).

Solar systemEdit

Template:Further

Geocentric gravitational constantEdit

Template:Further GTemplate:Earth mass, the gravitational parameter for the Earth as the central body, is called the geocentric gravitational constant. It equals Template:Val.<ref name="IAU best estimates">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}, citing Ries, J. C., Eanes, R. J., Shum, C. K., and Watkins, M. M., 1992, "Progress in the Determination of the Gravitational Coefficient of the Earth," Geophys. Res. Lett., 19(6), pp. 529-531.</ref>

The value of this constant became important with the beginning of spaceflight in the 1950s, and great effort was expended to determine it as accurately as possible during the 1960s. Sagitov (1969) cites a range of values reported from 1960s high-precision measurements, with a relative uncertainty of the order of 10⁻⁶.<ref name=Sagitov>Sagitov, M. U., "Current Status of Determinations of the Gravitational Constant and the Mass of the Earth", Soviet Astronomy, Vol. 13 (1970), 712–718, translated from Astronomicheskii Zhurnal Vol. 46, No. 4 (July–August 1969), 907–915.</ref>

During the 1970s to 1980s, the increasing number of artificial satellites in Earth orbit further facilitated high-precision measurements, and the relative uncertainty was decreased by another three orders of magnitude, to about Template:Val (1 in 500 million) as of 1992. Measurement involves observations of the distances from the satellite to Earth stations at different times, which can be obtained to high accuracy using radar or laser ranging.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Heliocentric gravitational constantEdit

Template:Further GTemplate:Solar mass, the gravitational parameter for the Sun as the central body, is called the heliocentric gravitational constant or geopotential of the Sun and equals Template:Nowrap

The relative uncertainty in GTemplate:Solar mass, cited at below 10⁻¹⁰ as of 2015, is smaller than the uncertainty in GTemplate:Earth mass because GTemplate:Solar mass is derived from the ranging of interplanetary probes, and the absolute error of the distance measures to them is about the same as the earth satellite ranging measures, while the absolute distances involved are much bigger.Template:Citation needed

ReferencesEdit

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