George C. Marshall

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George Catlett Marshall Jr. (31 December 1880 – 16 October 1959) was an American army officer and statesman. He rose through the United States Army to become Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army under presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman, then served as Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense under Truman.Template:Sfn Winston Churchill lauded Marshall as the "organizer of victory" for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II. During the subsequent year, he attempted but failed to avoid the impending continuation of the Chinese Civil War. As Secretary of State, Marshall advocated for a U.S. economic and political commitment to post-war European recovery, including the Marshall Plan that bore his name. In recognition of this work, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953, the only Army general ever to receive the honor.Template:Sfn

Born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, Marshall graduated from the Virginia Military Institute (VMI) in 1901. He received his commission as a second lieutenant of Infantry in February 1902 and immediately went to the Philippines. He served in the United States and overseas in positions of increasing rank, including platoon leader and company commander in the Philippines during the Philippine–American War. He was the top-ranked of the five Honor Graduates of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course in 1907 and graduated first in his 1908 Army Staff College class.Template:Sfn In 1916 Marshall was assigned as aide-de-camp to J. Franklin Bell, the commander of the Western Department. After the nation entered the First World War in 1917, Marshall served with Bell, who commanded the Department of the East. He was assigned to the staff of the 1st Division; he assisted with the organization's mobilization and training in the United States, as well as planning of its combat operations in France.Template:Sfn Subsequently assigned to the staff of the American Expeditionary Forces headquarters, he was a key planner of American operations, including the Meuse-Argonne Offensive.

Following his service in World War I, Marshall became an aide-de-camp to Army chief of staff John J. Pershing. Marshall later served on the Army staff, was the executive officer of the 15th Infantry Regiment in China and was an instructor at the Army War College. In 1927, he became assistant commandant of the Army's Infantry School, where he modernized command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In 1932 and 1933, he commanded the 8th Infantry Regiment and Fort Screven, Georgia. Marshall commanded 5th Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks from 1936 to 1938; he received promotion to brigadier general. During this command, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and Southern Washington. In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division on the War Department staff; he later became the Army's deputy chief of staff. When Chief of Staff Malin Craig retired in 1939, Marshall assumed the role of Chief of Staff in an acting capacity before his appointment to the position, which he held until the war's end in 1945.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

As the U.S. Army's Chief of Staff, Marshall worked closely with Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to organize the largest military expansion in U.S. history, and was ultimately promoted to five-star rank as General of the Army. Marshall coordinated Allied operations in Europe and the Pacific until the end of the war. In addition to accolades from Winston Churchill and other Allied leaders, Time magazine named Marshall its Man of the Year for 1943 and 1947.Template:Sfn Marshall retired from active service in 1945, but remained on active duty, as required for holders of five-star rank.Template:Sfn From 15 December 1945 to January 1947, Marshall served as a special envoy to China in an unsuccessful effort to negotiate a coalition government between the Nationalists of Chiang Kai-shek and the Communists of Mao Zedong.

As Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, Marshall advocated rebuilding Europe, a program that became known as the Marshall Plan, and which led to his being awarded the 1953 Nobel Peace Prize.Template:Sfn After resigning as Secretary of State, Marshall served as chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission Template:Sfn and president of the American National Red Cross. As Secretary of Defense at the start of the Korean War, Marshall worked to restore the military's confidence and morale after the end of its post-World War II demobilization and then its initial buildup for combat in Korea and operations during the Cold War. Resigning as Defense Secretary, Marshall retired to his home in Virginia. He died in 1959 and was buried with honors at Arlington National Cemetery.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Dead link</ref>

Early life and educationEdit

George Catlett Marshall Jr. was born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, the youngest of three children born to George Catlett Marshall and Laura Emily (née Bradford) Marshall.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Both sides of his family were long from Kentucky, but cherished their Virginia roots.Template:Sfn Template:Efn-ua He was also a first cousin, three times removed, of former chief justice John Marshall.Template:Sfn He was also a distant cousin of Richard J. Marshall.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Marshall's father was active in the coal and coke business.Template:Sfn Later, when asked about his political allegiances, Marshall often joked that his father had been a Democrat and his mother a Republican, whereas he was an Episcopalian.Template:Sfn

Marshall was educated at Miss Alcinda Thompson's private school in Uniontown and spent a year at Uniontown's Central School.Template:Sfn Having decided early in life that he desired a career in the military, but unlikely to obtain an appointment to the United States Military Academy because of his average grades, he looked to the Virginia Military Institute (VMI) for a formal education.Template:Sfn Marshall's brother Stuart, a VMI alumnus, believed George would not succeed and argued that their mother should not let George attend out of concern that he would "disgrace the family name."Template:Sfn Determined to "wipe his brother's face," Marshall enrolled at the age of sixteen in December 1897.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn To pay for his tuition and expenses, Marshall's mother sold parcels of land she owned in Uniontown and Augusta, Kentucky.Template:Sfn

File:1900 VMI Keydets football team marshall encircled.jpg

1900 VMI Keydets football team. Marshall circled

At the start of his college career, Marshall was subjected to a hazing incident in which upperclassmen positioned an unsheathed bayonet with the point up and directed him to squat over it.Template:Sfn After twenty minutes, Marshall fainted and fell.Template:Sfn When he awoke, he had a deep laceration to one of his buttocks.Template:Sfn While being treated for his injury, Marshall refused to inform on his classmates.Template:Sfn Impressed with his bravery, the hazers never bothered him again.Template:Sfn

During his years at VMI, Marshall always ranked first in military discipline and about midway academically.Template:Sfn He attained the rank of first captain, the highest a cadet could achieve, and graduated 15th of 34 in the Class of 1901.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Marshall received a diploma, not a degree.Template:Sfn At the time of his graduation, the top five or six VMI graduates received bachelor's degrees.Template:Sfn The rest received diplomas attesting to their status as graduates.Template:Sfn He played offensive tackle on the football team and in 1900 he was selected for All-Southern honors.Template:Sfn

Early infantry career and the PhilippinesEdit

Following his graduation from VMI, Marshall served as Commandant of Students at the Danville Military Institute in Danville, Virginia.Template:Sfn He took a competitive examination for a commission in the United States Army, which had greatly expanded to deal with the Spanish–American War and Philippine–American War.Template:Sfn Marshall passed and used endorsements his father obtained from both of Pennsylvania's U.S. senators to bolster his application.Template:Sfn VMI Superintendent Scott Shipp also supported Marshall's application, and in a letter to President William McKinley compared him favorably to other VMI graduates serving in the Army, saying Marshall was "Fully the equal of the best."Template:Sfn He was commissioned a second lieutenant of Infantry in February 1902.Template:Sfn In a matter of days he married, resigned the Danville job, and shipped out to serve with the 30th Infantry Regiment in the Philippines.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Prior to World War I, Marshall received various postings in the United States and the Philippines, including serving as an infantry platoon leader and company commander during the Philippine–American War and other guerrilla uprisings.Template:Sfn He was schooled in modern warfare, including tours from 1906 to 1910 as both a student and an instructor.Template:Sfn He was ranked first of five Honor Graduates of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course (now the United States Army Command and General Staff College) in 1907 and graduated first in his 1908 Army Staff College (now the United States Army War College) class.Template:Sfn After graduating in 1908, Marshall was assigned as an instructor at the Infantry-Cavalry School.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Sfn

After another tour of duty in the Philippines beginning in 1913, Marshall returned in 1916 to serve as aide-de-camp to Major General J. Franklin Bell, the commander of the Western Department and former Army chief of staff, at the Presidio of San Francisco.Template:Sfn In the summer and fall of 1916, Marshall was responsible for organizing several Western Department Citizens' Military Training Camps.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> After the American entry into World War I in April 1917, Marshall relocated with Bell to Governors Island, New York, when Bell was reassigned as commander of the Department of the East.Template:Sfn Shortly afterwards, Marshall was assigned to help oversee the mobilization of the 1st Division for service in France.Template:Sfn

World War IEdit

File:111-SC-6377 - Staff, First Division - NARA - 55173660 (cropped) (cropped).jpg

Major General Robert Lee Bullard (center, facing towards his right, photo's left), the newly appointed commander of the 1st Division, and members of his divisional staff at Gondrecourt, France, 17 January 1918. To Bullard's right is Lieutenant Colonel George C. Marshall, the 1st Division's assistant chief of staff for operations.

Shortly after the American entry into World War I in April 1917, Marshall had roles as a planner of both training and operations.Template:Sfn In the summer, he was assigned as assistant chief of staff for operations on the staff of the newly created 1st Division, commanded by Major General William L. Sibert, a fifty-six-year-old engineer officer.Template:Sfn After overseeing the division's mobilization and organization in Texas, he departed for France with the division staff in mid-1917.Template:Sfn On the long ocean voyage, his roommate was the division's assistant chief of staff for training, Major Lesley J. McNair;Template:Sfn the two formed a personal and professional bond that they maintained for the rest of their careers.Template:Sfn Marshall was the first passenger from the first boat transporting American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) soldiers to set foot in Europe, and one of the first to enter the trenches of the Western Front.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

After arriving in France, Marshall served with the 1st Division on the Saint-Mihiel, Picardy, and Cantigny fronts.Template:Sfn Although the division was designated as a Regular Army formation, most of the officers and men serving within its ranks were almost completely lacking in combat experience. They were also deficient "in training, staff work, and logistical problems. More than half of its soldiers were new recruits. Only a few of its non-commissioned officers had been in the Army for two years or more, and nearly all of the lieutenants had been commissioned less than six months".Template:Sfn

In late 1917, General John J. Pershing, the commander-in-chief (C-in-C) of the AEF, inspected the 1st Division.Template:Sfn Unimpressed by what he observed, Pershing began to berate the division commander, Major General Sibert, in front of his staff, including Marshall. Sibert took Pershing's criticism in silence, but when Pershing turned his attention to the division chief of staff, Marshall angrily interceded to inform Pershing of logistical and administrative difficulties of which Pershing was unaware.Template:Sfn Marshall also informed Pershing that the AEF staff had not been very helpful in dealing with the problems. Sibert and his staff were concerned that Marshall's willingness to confront Pershing had probably cost him his career. Instead, Pershing began to seek out Marshall and ask for his advice whenever he visited the 1st Division,Template:Sfn which, over the winter, "completed extensive training, much of it under French tutelage". By mid-April 1918 the division, now commanded by Major General Robert Lee Bullard, was deemed to have progressed enough in its training to have its own sector of the Western Front to hold.Template:Sfn

Marshall won recognition and acclaim for his planning of the Battle of Cantigny, which took place from 28 to 31 May 1918;Template:Sfn Marshall's success resulted in the first notable American victory of the war.Template:Sfn As he conducted pre-attack planning, Marshall traveled alone under cover of darkness to personally view the terrain and mentally map it.Template:Sfn Marshall ventured beyond the front lines and far into no-man's land, often under friendly artillery fire and routinely risking discovery and capture by Imperial German Army troops.Template:Sfn On 26 May, he was injured while traveling to several subordinate units to conduct pre-attack coordination.Template:Sfn As he departed the division headquarters area, his horse stumbled, fell, and rolled over;Template:Sfn Marshall's left foot was caught in the stirrup, and he sustained a severe sprain and bruise.Template:Sfn A physician bound Marshall's injured ankle and foot with adhesive tape so he could avoid medical evacuation and remain with the division to oversee the attack.Template:Sfn In 1920, Marshall was awarded the Citation Star for his heroism during this battle.Template:Sfn When the Silver Star medal was created in 1932, Citation Stars were converted to the new award.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn<ref name="Valor"/>Template:Efn-ua

File:Colonel George Marshall.tif

Colonel Marshall in France in 1919

In mid-1918, Pershing brought Marshall on to the AEF operations staff, G-3, where he worked closely with Pershing and was a key planner of American operations.Template:Sfn He was instrumental in the planning and coordination of the Meuse–Argonne offensive, which contributed to the defeat of the German Empire on the Western Front in 1918.Template:Sfn Marshall held the permanent rank of captain and the temporary rank of colonel and was recommended for promotion to temporary brigadier general in October 1918, but the Armistice with Germany on 11 November 1918 occurred before the recommendation was acted on.Template:Sfn

After the Armistice, Marshall served as chief of staff for the VIII Corps.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn For his services during the war he was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal, the citation for which reads:

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Between the warsEdit

File:Gen. J. J. Pershing and Staff. Group showing Gen. J. J. Pershing and Staff standing on State, War, and Navy Building steps. Washington, D.C - DPLA - 1c56a88aeb0697950857227de7c3def9 (cropped) (cropped).jpg

General of the Armies John J. Pershing and members of his staff standing outside the State, War, and Navy Building in Washington, D.C., 23 September 1919. Pershing is second from left in front row. Marshall is behind Pershing

After the war, Marshall reverted to his permanent rank of captain.Template:Sfn In 1919, he became an aide-de-camp to General Pershing.Template:Sfn Between 1920 and 1924, while Pershing was Army chief of staff, Marshall worked on a number of projects that focused on training and teaching modern, mechanized warfare. He taught at the Army War College and was a key planner in the War Department.Template:Sfn He then served as executive officer of the 15th Infantry Regiment in the Republic of China, where he remained for three years and learned to speak basic Mandarin.Template:Sfn In 1927, as a lieutenant colonel, he was appointed assistant commandant of the Infantry School at Fort Benning, where he initiated major changes to modernize command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II.Template:Sfn Marshall placed Edwin F. Harding in charge of the Infantry School's publications, and Harding became editorTemplate:Sfn of Infantry in Battle, a book that codified the lessons of World War I. Infantry in Battle is still used as an officer's training manual in the Infantry Officer's Course and was the training manual for most of the infantry officers and leaders of World War II.

Marshall's first wife died in 1927. The following year, while stationed at Fort Benning, Marshall met Katherine Tupper Brown at a dinner party.Template:Sfn They married on 15 October 1930, at Emmanuel Episcopal Church in Baltimore, Maryland.Template:Sfn The wedding made headlines as General Pershing served as Marshall's best man.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

From June 1932 to June 1933, Marshall was the commanding officer of the 8th Infantry Regiment at Fort Screven, Georgia.Template:Sfn From July 1933 to October 1933 he was commander of Fort Moultrie, South Carolina, and District I of the Civilian Conservation Corps. He was promoted colonel in September 1933.Template:Sfn

During the Great Depression, Marshall became a strong supporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal.<ref name=":0">Template:Harvp</ref> Army chief of staff Douglas MacArthur, who was a Republican and with whom Marshall had a contentious relationship, did not appreciate Marshall's views. After only a few months at Ft. Moultrie, MacArthur engineered Marshall's abrupt transfer to Chicago, where he served as senior instructor and chief of staff for the Illinois National Guard's 33rd Division from November 1933 to August 1936.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

File:George C. Marshall cph.3a44773.jpg

Brigadier General Marshall in 1938

Marshall was assigned to command the 5th Brigade of the 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks in Vancouver, Washington, from 1936 to 1938, and was promoted to brigadier general in October 1936.Template:Sfn In addition to obtaining a long-sought and significant troop command, traditionally viewed as an indispensable step to the pinnacle of the US Army, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and southern Washington.Template:Sfn As post commander Marshall made a concerted effort to cultivate relations with the city of Portland and to enhance the image of the US Army in the region. With the CCC, he initiated a series of measures to improve the morale of the participants and to make the experience beneficial in their later life. He started a newspaper for the CCC region that provided a vehicle to promote CCC successes, and he initiated a variety of programs that developed participants' skills and improved their health. Marshall's inspections of the CCC camps gave him and his wife Katherine the chance to enjoy the beauty of the American Pacific Northwest and made that assignment what he called "the most instructive service I ever had, and the most interesting."Template:Sfn

In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division in Washington, D.C., and subsequently reassigned as Deputy Chief of Staff. In that capacity, then-Brigadier General Marshall attended a White House conference at which President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed a plan to expand the United States Army Air Corps by 15,000 aircraft per year in preparation for World War II. With all other attendees voicing support, Marshall was the only one to disagree, pointing out the lack of consideration for logistical support or training. Marshall also spoke in favor of a large ground army although Roosevelt had said a large air force would be a greater deterrent to enemies, pointing out that the United States Army did not yet have a single division at full operational strength.<ref name=":0" /> Despite others' belief then that Marshall had ended his career, his willingness to express disagreement resulted in Roosevelt nominating Marshall to be the Army Chief of Staff.

Upon the retirement of General Malin Craig on 1 July 1939, Marshall became acting chief of staff.Template:Sfn Several generals were candidates to succeed Craig, including Hugh Aloysius Drum.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Roosevelt favored Marshall because he was more supportive of New Deal liberalism than the conservative and still-influential Douglas MacArthur, who had been chief of staff from 1930 to 1935, and because of the recommendations of Pershing, Craig, Louis A. Johnson, and Roosevelt's close advisor Harry Hopkins.<ref name=":0" /> Marshall was sworn in as chief of staff on 1 September 1939, just hours after the Wehrmacht launched its invasion of Poland.<ref name=":0" /><ref>George C. Marshall's Early Career Template:Webarchive. georgecmarshall.org</ref> He held this post until retiring in November 1945.Template:Sfn At the time of the appointment, Marshall was 34th in seniority, outranked by 21 major generals and 11 brigadier generals, but he was fifth under an unwritten rule that the chief of staff should be able to serve a four-year term before reaching the mandatory retirement age of 64.Template:Sfn

On 11 May 1940, the United States Congress cut $10 million from a $28 million appropriation budget for equipment to detect Imperial Japanese Armed Forces aircraft off the West Coast of the United States. Marshall met with Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. and they went to see Roosevelt; Marshall emphasized the supreme importance of getting the full amount and told Roosevelt "you have got to do something and you've got to do it today". Marshall's advocacy worked and he got "all he wanted and more".Template:Sfn

In 1941, Marshall became a Freemason, raised "at sight" by the grand master of the Grand Lodge of the District of Columbia.Template:Sfn ("At sight" is the procedure by which a grand master confers on a candidate all three Masonic degrees – Apprentice, Fellowcraft, and Master – at one time.)Template:Sfn

World War IIEdit

File:Winston Churchill As Prime Minister 1940-1945 H12744.jpg

Marshall standing behind President Roosevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill aboard the British battleship Template:HMS on 10 August 1941

As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in American history, inheriting an outmoded, poorly equipped army of 189,000 men and, partly drawing from his experience teaching and developing techniques of modern warfare as an instructor at the Army War College, coordinated the large-scale expansion and modernization of the U.S. Army. Under his name were produced significant works of doctrine such as Field Manual 100-5. During his first week in office, he advised Roosevelt to issue an executive order expanding the Regular Army to 227,000 troops and the National Guard to 235,000 reservists, although the President could not immediately act because the United States Congress still favored isolationism.<ref name=":1">Template:Harvp</ref>

Marshall's efforts to expand the United States Armed Forces began to have more success after the Axis powers conquered most of Western Europe in the Battle of France. Beginning in July 1940, he was greatly assisted in this effort by newly appointed Secretary of War Henry Stimson, whom Marshall would gradually displace as the most significant leader of the U.S. military apparatus in a deviation from the United States' tradition of civilian control of the military.<ref name=":1" /> Though he had never actually led troops in combat, Marshall was a skilled organizer with a talent for inspiring other officers.Template:Sfn Many of the American generals who were given top commands during the war were either picked or recommended by Marshall, including Dwight D. Eisenhower, Jacob L. Devers, George S. Patton, Terry de la Mesa Allen Sr., Lloyd Fredendall, Lesley J. McNair, Mark Wayne Clark and Omar Bradley.Template:Sfn

Expands military force fortyfoldEdit

File:Infantry in battle cover.gif

Cover to the book Infantry in Battle, the World War II officer's guide to infantry combat operations. Marshall directed production of the book, which is still used as a reference today

Faced with the necessity of turning former civilians into an army of over eight million soldiers by 1942 (a fortyfold increase within three years), Marshall directed McNair as commander of Army Ground Forces to focus efforts on rapidly producing large numbers of soldiers. With the exception of airborne forces, Marshall approved McNair's concept of an abbreviated training schedule for men entering Army land forces training, particularly in regard to basic infantry skills, weapons proficiency, and combat tactics.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn At the time, most U.S. commanders at lower levels had little or no combat experience of any kind. Without the input of experienced British or Allied combat officers on the nature of modern warfare and enemy tactics, many resorted to formulaic training methods emphasizing static defense and orderly large-scale advances by motorized convoys over improved roads.Template:Sfn In consequence, Army forces deploying to Africa in Operation Torch suffered serious initial reverses when they encountered German armored units in Africa in the Battle of Kasserine Pass and other major battles.Template:Sfn Even as late as 1944, American soldiers undergoing stateside training in preparation for deployment against German forces in Europe were not being trained in combat procedures and tactics in use there.Template:Sfn

Replacement system criticizedEdit

File:George marshall&henry stimson.jpg

Army Chief of Staff Marshall with Secretary of War Henry Stimson

Originally, Marshall had planned a 265-division army with a system of unit rotation such as that practiced by the British and other Allies.Template:Sfn By mid-1943, however, after pressure from government and business leaders to preserve manpower for industry and agriculture, he had abandoned this plan in favor of a 90-division Army using individual replacements sent via a circuitous process from training to divisions in combat.Template:Sfn The individual replacement system devised by Marshall and implemented by McNair exacerbated problems with unit cohesion and effective transfer of combat experience to new soldiers and officers.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn In Europe, where there were few pauses in combat with German forces, the individual replacement system had broken down completely by late 1944.Template:Sfn Hastily trained replacements or service personnel reassigned as infantry were often given only a few weeks' refresher training before being thrown into battle with Army divisions locked in front-line combat.

The new men were often not even proficient in the use of their own weapons, and once in combat, could not receive enough practical instruction from veterans before being killed or wounded, sometimes within the first few days.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Under such conditions, many soldiers suffered a crippling loss of morale, while veterans were kept at the front until they were killed, wounded, or incapacitated by battle fatigue or illness. Incidents of soldiers going AWOL from combat duty as well as battle fatigue and self-inflicted injury rose rapidly during the last eight months of the war with Nazi Germany.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn As one historian concluded, "Had the Germans been given a free hand to devise a replacement system..., one that would do the Americans the most harm and the least good, they could not have done a better job."Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Marshall's abilities to pick competent field commanders during the early part of the war was decidedly mixed. He was instrumental in advancing the careers of the highly capable generals such as Dwight D. Eisenhower, Omar Bradley, George S. Patton, Walter Krueger and Mark W. Clark. A notable exception was his recommendation of the swaggering Lloyd Fredendall to Eisenhower for a major command in the American invasion of North Africa during Operation Torch. Marshall was especially fond of Fredendall, describing him as "one of the best" and remarking in a staff meeting when his name was mentioned, "I like that man; you can see determination all over his face." Eisenhower duly picked him to command the 39,000-man Central Task Force (the largest of three) in Operation Torch. Both men would come to regret that decision, as Fredendall was the leader of U.S. Army forces at the disastrous Battle of Kasserine Pass.Template:Sfn

Planned invasion of EuropeEdit

File:Gen. George C. Marshall, U. S. Army Chief of Staff, and Gen. Henry "Hap" Arnold, Commanding General, U. S. Army Air... - NARA - 198960.jpg

General George C. Marshall with Chief of the Army Air Force General Henry "Hap" Arnold at Villa Urbig on 23 July 1945 during the Potsdam Conference. The two generals return the salute of the Guard of Honor formed by a detachment of Scots Guards of the British Brigade of Guards

During World War II, Marshall was instrumental in preparing the U.S. Army and Army Air Forces for the invasion of Continental Europe. Marshall wrote the document that would become the central strategy for all Allied operations in Europe. During the Arcadia Conference, he convinced the United Kingdom to accept this strategy, including the focus on defeating Germany first and the establishment of international unified commands in control of all Allied forces in a given theatre. His push for unity of command, in particular through the Combined Chiefs of Staff and the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command, met with resistance from the British Armed Forces under Alan Brooke because the scheme would allow the United States to dominate the Western Allied war effort, but the British government ultimately approved.Template:Sfn

He initially scheduled Operation Overlord for 1 April 1943, but met with strong opposition from Winston Churchill, who convinced Roosevelt to commit troops to Operation Husky for the invasion of Italy.Template:Sfn Marshall and his advisors also opposed the Allied invasion of French North Africa after it became clear that Vichy France would offer resistance, concerns over an Axis intervention through Francoist Spain and Gibraltar, and suspicions that the operation was intended to defend European colonial territory with little strategic value to the war.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref>

File:Joseph Stalin & Generals, Tehran Conference.jpg

Marshall with Joseph Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, and Harry Hopkins at the Tehran Conference in Iran, December 1943

When rumors circulated that Marshall would become the Supreme Commander of Operation Overlord, many critics viewed the potential transfer as a demotion, since he would leave his position as Chief of Staff of the Army and lose his seat on the Combined Chiefs of Staff.Template:Sfn While Marshall enjoyed considerable success in working with Congress and Roosevelt, he refused to lobby for the position. Roosevelt selected Eisenhower, in large part because he did not want to do without Marshall in the Chief of Staff position. He told Marshall, "I didn't feel I could sleep at ease if you were out of Washington."Template:Sfn

On 16 December 1944, Marshall became the first American general to be promoted to the newly created rank of general of the Army, a five-star rank that placed senior American commanders on an equal footing with the field marshals of European Allies; Marshall had objected to being awarded the title of field marshal, as it would have given him the title of "Marshal Marshall".Template:Sfn<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Throughout the remainder of World War II, Marshall coordinated Allied operations in both Europe and the Pacific. He was characterized as the organizer of Allied victory by Churchill. Time magazine named Marshall Man of the Year for 1943.Template:Sfn Marshall resigned his post of chief of staff on 18 November 1945, but did not retire, as regulations stipulate that generals of the Army remain on active duty for life. He was succeeded as Army chief of staff by General of the Army Dwight Eisenhower.Template:Sfn During this time, he also received a Bronze oak leaf cluster to his Army DSM for his unprecedented work from 1939 to 1945. The medal's citation reads:

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Analysis of Pearl Harbor intelligence failureEdit

File:Photograph of President Truman shaking hands with Secretary of State James F. Byrnes after awarding him the... - NARA - 199180.jpg

President Truman, Marshall, Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, and General Arnold at the White House, August 1945

After World War II ended, the Congressional Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack received testimony on the intelligence failure. It amassed 25,000 pages of documents, 40 volumes, and included nine reports and investigations, eight of which had been previously completed. These reports included criticism of Marshall for delaying sending Lieutenant General Walter Short, the Army commander in Hawaii, important information obtained from intercepted Japanese diplomatic messages. The report also criticized Marshall's lack of knowledge of the readiness of the Hawaiian Command during November and December 1941.Template:Sfn Marshall also advised President Roosevelt to move part of the United States Pacific Fleet to the Atlantic Ocean to assist Neutrality Patrols, and that the defenses at Oahu made a Japanese attack on the island impossible. These recommendations were dismissed by the President but could have been catastrophic if they had not been.Template:Sfn

Ten days after the attack, Short and Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, commander of the United States Pacific Fleet at Naval Station Pearl Harbor, were both relieved of their duties. The final report of the Joint Committee did not single out or fault Marshall. While the report was critical of the overall situation, the committee noted that subordinates had failed to pass on important information to their superiors, including to Marshall.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

A secret review of the Army's role, which resulted in the Clausen Report, was authorized by Secretary Henry Stimson.Template:Sfn The report was critical of Short and also of Colonel Rufus S. Bratton of the Military Intelligence Division (G-2), who investigator Henry Clausen concluded arrived at the War Department later on the morning of 7 December 1941 than he initially claimed during testimony and invented a story about a warning to affected army commanders about the imminent Pearl Harbor Attack being delayed because he had been unable to get in touch with Marshall, an allegation which "nearly destroyed" Marshall.Template:Sfn

Mission to ChinaEdit

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File:Zhang, Marshall and Zhou.jpg

General Marshall with Chiang Kai-shek and Zhou Enlai in China, 1946

Only weeks after Marshall's retirement, in December 1945, President Harry Truman dispatched Marshall to the Republic of China, where he had served in the 1920s. His new mission was to prevent a resumption of the Chinese Civil War by brokering a coalition government between America's Kuomintang allies under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese Communist Party of Mao Zedong. Marshall had no leverage over the Communists but threatened to withdraw American aid essential to the Nationalists. Both sides rejected his proposals and he returned to the United States in January 1947.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn As Secretary of State, Marshall disagreed with the Defense and State Department views that Chiang's success was vital to American interests, insisting that U.S. troops not become involved. The war continued, and the Communists won in 1949.

Secretary of StateEdit

After Marshall's return to the U.S. in early 1947, Truman appointed him Secretary of State. As one of the most well-regarded and least politicized national leaders, he made an ideal front office personality. He became the spokesman for the State Department's ambitious plans to rebuild Europe. He did not design the plans and paid little attention to details or negotiations. Nor did he keep current on details of foreign affairs. As one biographer notes, he had never been a workaholic.Template:Sfn He turned over major responsibilities to his deputies, especially Under-Secretary Robert A. Lovett, and refused to be troubled by minutiae. By 1948, with frailties building up, his participation was further curtailed. Marshall said, "The fact of the matter is that Lovett bears the principal burden as I get away whenever possible."Template:Sfn

File:Photograph of George C. Marshall being sworn in as Secretary of State in the Oval Office by Chief Justice Fred... - NARA - 199520.jpg

General Marshall being sworn in as Secretary of State by Chief Justice Fred Vinson in the Oval Office on 21 January 1947

On 5 June 1947, in a speechTemplate:Sfn at Harvard University, he outlined the American proposal. The European Recovery Program, as it was formally known, became known as the Marshall Plan. Clark Clifford had suggested to Truman that the plan be called the Truman Plan, but Truman immediately dismissed that idea and insisted that it be called the Marshall Plan.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The Marshall Plan would help Europe rebuild and modernize its economy along American lines and open up new opportunities for international trade. Stalin ordered his satellites in Eastern Europe not to participate. Marshall was again named "Man of the Year" by Time in January 1948.<ref>See "George C. Marshall, Man of the Year Jan. 5, 1948" </ref>

File:Secretary of State General George C. Marshall Speak to The House Appropriations Committee.jpg

Secretary of State Marshall speaks to the House Appropriations Committee. 15 January 1948

Truman repeatedly rejected Marshall's advice on Middle Eastern policy.Template:Sfn As Secretary of State, Marshall strongly opposed recognizing the newly formed state of Israel. Marshall felt that if the state of Israel was declared, a war would break out in the Middle East (which it did when the 1948 Arab–Israeli War began one day after Israel declared independence). Marshall saw recognizing the Jewish state as a political move to gain American Jewish support in the upcoming election, in which Truman was expected to lose to Thomas E. Dewey. He told President Truman in May 1948, "If you [recognize the state of Israel] and if I were to vote in the election, I would vote against you."Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn However, Marshall refused to vote in any election as a matter of principle.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Efn-ua Template:Efn-ua

During his tenure as Secretary of State, Marshall also urged Truman to immediately call for The Netherlands to stop their invasion of Indonesia, a former Dutch colony which had declared independence in 1945. The Netherlands ignored the Truman administration's initial entreaties. As a result, the Marshall Plan program for the Netherlands' economic recovery was put on hold and the Truman administration threatened to cut all economic aid. The Netherlands finally agreed to withdraw and transferred sovereignty following the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference in 1949.Template:Sfn

Marshall resigned as Secretary of State because of ill health on 7 January 1949. He was severely exhausted throughout his tenure in the position. Dean Acheson in late 1947 said he was underperforming like "a four-engine bomber going only on one engine."Template:Sfn Truman named him to the largely honorific positions of chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission and president of the American National Red Cross.Template:Sfn He received the 1953 Nobel Peace Prize for his post-war work, despite the criticism that he was a warrior not a pacifist.<ref>See George C Marshall Foundation, "The Nobel Peace Prize" (2017) Template:Webarchive</ref>

Secretary of DefenseEdit

File:Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall at The Pentagon.jpg

Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall in his office at the Pentagon

When the early months of the Korean War showed how poorly prepared the Defense Department was, President Truman fired Secretary Louis A. Johnson and named Marshall as Secretary of Defense in September 1950.Template:Sfn The appointment required a congressional waiver because the National Security Act of 1947 prohibited a uniformed military officer from serving in the post. This prohibition included Marshall since individuals promoted to General of the Army are not technically retired but remain officially on active duty.Template:Sfn Marshall was the first person to be granted such a waiver; in 2017, Jim Mattis became the second and in January 2021, General Lloyd Austin became the third.Template:Sfn Marshall's main role as Secretary of Defense was to restore confidence and morale to the Defense Department while rebuilding the United States Armed Forces following their post-World War II demobilization.

Korean WarEdit

File:L to R, President Truman, George Marshall, Paul Hoffman, and Averell Harriman, in the oval office discussing the... - NARA - 200036.tif

Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall discussing the Korean War with President Truman and Special Assistant to the President Averell Harriman in the Oval Office

Marshall worked to provide more manpower to meet the demands of both the Korean War and the Cold War in Europe. To implement his priorities Marshall brought in a new leadership team, including Robert A. Lovett as his deputy and Anna M. Rosenberg, former head of the War Manpower Commission, as assistant secretary of defense for manpower. He also worked to rebuild the relationship between the Defense and State Departments, as well as the relationship between the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Marshall participated in the post-Inchon landing discussion that led to authorizing Douglas MacArthur to conduct the UN offensive into North Korea. A secret "eyes only" signal from Marshall to MacArthur on 29 September 1950, declared the Truman administration's commitment: "We want you to feel unhampered strategically and tactically to proceed north of the 38th Parallel".Template:Sfn At the same time, Marshall advised against public pronouncements which might lead to United Nations votes undermining or countermanding the initial mandate to restore the border between North and South Korea. Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff were generally supportive of MacArthur because they were of the view that field commanders should be able to exercise their best judgment in accomplishing the intent of their superiors.Template:Fact

Following Chinese military intervention in Korea during late November, Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff sought ways to aid MacArthur while avoiding all-out war with China. In the debate over what to do about China's increased involvement, Marshall opposed a cease-fire on the grounds that it would make the U.S. look weak in China's eyes, leading to demands for future concessions.Template:Sfn In addition, Marshall argued that the U.S. had a moral obligation to honor its commitment to South Korea. When British Prime Minister Clement Attlee suggested diplomatic overtures to China, Marshall opposed, arguing that it was impossible to negotiate with the Communist government. In addition, Marshall expressed concern that concessions to China would undermine confidence in the U.S. among its Asian allies, including Japan and the Philippines. When some in Congress favored expanding the war in Korea and confronting China, Marshall argued against a wider war in Korea, continuing instead to stress the importance of containing the Soviet Union during the Cold War battle for primacy in Europe.Template:Fact

Relief of General MacArthurEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Increasingly concerned about public statements from MacArthur, commander of United Nations Command forces fighting in the Korean War, which contradicted President Truman's on prosecution of the war, on the morning of 6 April 1951, Truman held a meeting with Marshall, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley, Secretary of State Dean Acheson and advisor W. Averell Harriman to discuss whether MacArthur should be removed from command.Template:Sfn

Harriman was emphatically in favor of MacArthur's relief, but Bradley opposed it.Template:Sfn Marshall asked for more time to consider the matter.Template:Sfn Acheson was in favor but did not disclose this, instead warning Truman that if he did it, MacArthur's relief would cause "the biggest fight of your administration."Template:Sfn At another meeting the following day, Marshall and Bradley continued to oppose MacArthur's relief.Template:Sfn On 8 April, the Joint Chiefs of Staff met with Marshall, and each expressed the view that MacArthur's relief was desirable from a "military point of view," suggesting that "if MacArthur were not relieved, a large segment of our people would charge that civil authorities no longer controlled the military."Template:Sfn

Marshall, Bradley, Acheson, and Harriman met with Truman again on 9 April.Template:Sfn Bradley informed the President of the views of the Joint Chiefs, and Marshall added that he agreed with them.Template:Sfn Truman wrote in his diary that "it is of unanimous opinion of all that MacArthur be relieved. All four so advise."Template:Sfn (The Joint Chiefs would later insist that they had only "concurred" with the relief, not "recommended" it.)Template:Sfn

On 11 April 1951, Truman directed transmittal of an order to MacArthur, issued over Bradley's signature, relieving MacArthur of his assignment in Korea and directing him to turn over command to Matthew Ridgway.Template:Sfn In line with Marshall's view, and those of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, MacArthur's relief was looked upon by proponents as being necessary to reassert the tenet of civilian control of the military.Template:Sfn

Later lifeEdit

File:Dodona Manor.JPG

Dodona Manor, the 19th century home and gardens of George Marshall and his wife Katherine

RetirementEdit

In September 1951, after 49 years of continuous public service, Marshall retired to his home, Dodona Manor, in Leesburg, Virginia.Template:Sfn Purchased by the Marshalls in 1941, Dodona had previously served as a quiet weekend retreat for the busy couple.Template:Sfn The home was restored beginning in the 1990s and the house and its gardens are open to the public as a museum.Template:Sfn

It was at Dodona Manor that Marshall enjoyed his favorite food, roast leg of lamb, and his favorite beverage, an old fashioned.Template:Sfn Gardening was one of Marshall's favorite pastimes, and in retirement he grew vegetables throughout the year, including tomatoes and pumpkins, while Katherine Marshall enjoyed tending to her rose garden.Template:Sfn In a 1942 letter to David Burpee, president of the W. Atlee Burpee & Company, Marshall wrote, "The business of seeds and flowers tantalizes me because I have been an amateur gardener, both flower and vegetable, since a boy of ten. There is nothing I would so much prefer to do this spring as to turn my mind to the wholesome business of gardening rather than the terrible problems and tragedies of war."Template:Sfn

Katherine's love of roses was well known, leading inventor Eugene S. Boerner to create the Katherine Tupper Marshall Rose, a pink hybrid tea rose.Template:Sfn It was patented by Jackson and Perkins in 1943.Template:Sfn

American Battle Monuments CommissionEdit

Throughout his retirement, Marshall served as chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission.Template:Sfn He oversaw the construction of fourteen cemeteries in eight countries following World War II to memorialize those killed or missing in battle.Template:Sfn In the early 1950s, Marshall argued for the speedy construction and funding of cemeteries despite budget and staff cuts for the Korean War. Marshall wrote to General Joseph McNarney in March 1951 saying, "I am naturally hesitant to become personally involved in individual personnel problems, but in this case, am deeply concerned about the overall morale factor if our foreign national cemeteries are not adequately maintained...."Template:Sfn Marshall's efforts to secure building and maintenance staff for the cemeteries were successful, doubling the number of military officers assigned to the work.Template:Sfn On 13 September 1952, Marshall attended the dedication ceremony of Suresnes American Cemetery in France.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Coronation of Queen Elizabeth IIEdit

After retiring, Marshall largely withdrew from public life.Template:Sfn A notable exception was in June 1953, when he accepted President Eisenhower's appointment to head the American delegation to the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.Template:Sfn The delegation included Earl Warren and Omar Bradley, and according to Bradley, as Marshall walked up the aisle of Westminster Abbey to take his seat before the ceremony, the congregation rose to its feet as a gesture of respect.Template:Sfn Marshall looked behind him to see who the arriving dignitary was, then realized the congregation had stood for him.Template:Sfn Marshall was also invited to the post-ceremony banquet at Buckingham Palace, and was the only non-royal seated at Queen Elizabeth's table.Template:Sfn

Family lifeEdit

File:Cover of Together, Annals of an Army Wife.jpg

Cover of Together: Annals of an Army Wife, by Katherine Tupper Marshall. Published 1946

George Marshall was the youngest of three siblings.Template:Sfn His older brother Stuart Bradford Marshall (1875–1956) was a graduate of the Virginia Military Institute and became a manager and executive in several metal production corporations, including the American Manganese Manufacturing Company.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn He later worked as a metallurgist and consulting engineer specializing in the production and operation of blast furnaces, coke ovens, and foundries.Template:Sfn George and Stuart Marshall were long estranged because George married Lily Coles, who a few years before had rejected Stuart's proposal.Template:Sfn When Stuart found out George was engaged to Lily, Stuart made unkind remarks about her, and George "cut him off my list."Template:Sfn Marshall's sister, Marie Louise (1876–1962) was the wife of John Johnston Singer (1879–1934), an Army physician who died in 1934.Template:Sfn

On 11 February 1902, Marshall married Elizabeth Carter "Lily" Coles at her mother's home in Lexington, Virginia.Template:Sfn Marshall met Lily after listening to her play the piano across the street from VMI.Template:Sfn Marshall, being immediately smitten, would "run the block", or leave barracks after hours, to be with her.Template:Sfn After traveling abroad to Japan, Korea, and China with Marshall, Lily returned to the U.S. to have a goiter removed. She died on 15 September 1927, after thyroid surgery that strained her weak heart.Template:Sfn They did not have children.Template:Sfn

On 15 October 1930, Marshall married Katherine Boyce Tupper (8 October 1882 – 18 December 1978);Template:Sfn Template:Sfn They had no children, but she was the mother of three children with Baltimore lawyer Clifton Stevenson Brown.Template:Sfn He had been murdered by a disgruntled client in 1928.Template:Sfn The second Mrs. Marshall was a graduate of the American Academy of Dramatic Arts; she later studied at the Comédie-Française and toured with Frank Benson's English Shakespearean Company.Template:Sfn She authored a memoir in 1946, Together: Annals of an Army Wife.Template:Sfn

One of Marshall's stepsons, Allen Tupper Brown (1916–1944), was an Army lieutenant who was killed in Italy on 29 May 1944.Template:Sfn Another stepson was Major Clifton Stevenson Brown Jr. (1914–1952).Template:Sfn Stepdaughter Molly Brown Winn (1912–1997), the mother of actress Kitty Winn, was married to Colonel James Julius Winn (1907–1990), who had been an aide to Marshall.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Molly Winn was active in preserving Marshall's legacy, including preserving Dodona Manor and publishing Marshall's World War I memoirs.Template:Sfn

Death and burialEdit

File:George Marshall Gravesite.jpg

Grave site of George Marshall at Arlington National Cemetery

After a series of strokes, Marshall died at Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, D.C., on 16 October 1959, two months shy of his 79th birthday.Template:Sfn Although he was entitled to official proceedings, Marshall preferred simplicity, so he received a special military funeral that dispensed with many of the usual activities.Template:Sfn The ceremonies included lying in state at Washington National Cathedral for 24 hours, guarded by representatives from each U.S. armed service and a VMI cadet.Template:Sfn

President Eisenhower ordered flags flown at half-staff and was among the 200 guests invited for the funeral service held at Fort Myer.Template:Sfn Other dignitaries included former President Truman, Secretary of State Christian A. Herter, former Secretary of State Dean Acheson, former Governor W. Averell Harriman and Generals Omar N. Bradley, Alfred M. Gruenther, and Matthew B. Ridgway.Template:Sfn His parish priest, Franklin Moss Jr., from St. James Episcopal Church in Leesburg conducted the chapel and graveside services, assisted by former chief chaplain and National Cathedral Canon the Reverend Luther Miller.Template:Sfn In accordance with Marshall's wishes, there was no eulogy.Template:Sfn Following the burial service, an artillery battery fired a 19-gun salute and a bugler played taps. The flag that draped Marshall's casket was folded and given to Mrs. Marshall by a VMI cadet.Template:Sfn

Marshall was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Section 7, Grave 8198, beside his first wife and her mother, Elizabeth Pendleton Coles (1849–1929).Template:Sfn Template:Sfn His second wife was also buried with him after she died on 18 December 1978.Template:Sfn On its reverse side, the marble headstone lists General Marshall's positions held: "Chief of Staff U.S. Army, Secretary of State, President of American Red Cross, Secretary of Defense." The five-star rank adorns both sides of the stone.

Reputation and legacyEdit

File:Thomas Edgar Stephens - George C. Marshall - Google Art Project.jpg

George Marshall portrait by Thomas E. Stephens, (Template:Circa)

As William Taylor and other historians have recently emphasized, George Marshall was the best-known and most active – and most selfless – American leader in the early Cold War. His leadership had a distinct, signature style <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> which contained "Disdain for false speaking and dissembling", "Aura of Authority" and "Immensity of Integrity".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> He viewed his world in definitive black and white with no vagueness in arguments or gray areas in decision-making.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Marshall is best known for giving his name and prestige to the Marshall Plan to rebuild the European economy. However, he suffered several defeats – he failed in the year-long effort to resolve the Chinese Civil War; he was defeated in his proposal to impose universal military service on all American men; and he was overruled by President Truman when he opposed the recognition of Israel. Historians agree that Truman depended heavily upon Marshall's prestige at a time of intensely bitter partisanship. Wilson Miscamble points to Marshall's delayed recognition of the threat posed by the Soviet Union – not until April 1947 did he realize the dangers. Miscamble concludes that recent studies show that Marshall was:

An important contributor but hardly a dominant figure in the making of postwar American foreign policy. He had a special gift for delegation and he drew forth impressive contributions from various capable subordinates.Template:Sfn

Marshall's reputation for excellence as a military organizer and planner was recognized early in his career and became known throughout the Army. In a performance appraisal prepared while Marshall was a lieutenant in the Philippines, his superior, Captain E. J. Williams responded to the routine question of whether he would want the evaluated officer to serve under his command again by writing of Marshall "Should the exigencies of active service place him in exalted command I would be glad to serve under him." (Emphasis added)Template:Sfn

In 1916, Lieutenant Colonel Johnson Hagood completed a written evaluation of Marshall's performance in which he called Marshall a military genius. Responding to the question of whether he would want his subordinate Marshall to serve under him again, Hagood wrote "Yes, but I would prefer to serve under his command." (Emphasis added)Template:Sfn Hagood went on to recommend Marshall's immediate promotion to brigadier general, despite the fact that there were more than 1,800 officers, including Hagood, who were senior to him.Template:Sfn

After the surrender of the Nazi German government in May 1945, Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War, paid tribute to Marshall in front of a gathering of members of the Army staff, concluding with: "I have seen a great many soldiers in my lifetime and you, Sir, are the finest soldier I have ever known."Template:Sfn

Historians credit the high regard others had for Marshall's personal integrity as another reason for his positive legacy.Template:Sfn In addition to his willingness to confront Pershing over Pershing's berating of the 1st Division chief of staff during World War I, Marshall cited other instances where he provided persistent advice that kept Pershing from creating needless controversy.Template:Sfn In one, Marshall recalled a time when Pershing and James Harbord intended to change a War Department policy implemented by Peyton March, the chief of staff of the Army and Pershing's nominal superior, with whom Pershing had a long-running feud.Template:Sfn Marshall counseled against it several times, and Pershing angrily indicated that his chief of staff Harbord and he intended to submit their proposal despite Marshall's advice.Template:Sfn Rather than concede, Marshall replied that Pershing was letting his personal feud with March cloud his judgment and that Harbord, who also disliked March, was doing the same.Template:Sfn Instead of continuing to "pull rank", Pershing yielded to Marshall's judgment and said "Well, have it your own way."Template:Sfn

In another incident that highlighted Marshall's reputation for integrity, when President Franklin Roosevelt, a former Assistant Secretary of the Navy, favored the Navy during World War II planning, Marshall suggested that Roosevelt stop referring to the Navy as "us" and the Army as "them."Template:Sfn Roosevelt laughed, but Marshall's humorous protest had made its point.Template:Sfn

In addition to his military success, Marshall is primarily remembered as the driving force behind the Marshall Plan, which provided billions of dollars in aid to post war Europe to restart the economies of the destroyed countries. In recent years, the cooperation required between former European adversaries as part of the Marshall Plan has been recognized as one of the earliest factors that led to European integration beginning with the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community, and eventually the formation of the European Union.Template:Sfn

In a television interview after leaving office, Truman was asked which American he thought had made the greatest contribution of the preceding thirty years. Without hesitation, Truman picked Marshall, adding "I don't think in this age in which I have lived, that there has been a man who has been a greater administrator; a man with a knowledge of military affairs equal to General Marshall."Template:Sfn

Orson Welles said in a 1970 interview with Dick Cavett that "Marshall is the greatest man I ever met ... I think he was the greatest human being who was also a great man ... He was a tremendous gentleman: an old fashioned institution which isn't with us anymore."Template:Sfn The story Welles related to Cavett to illustrate his point was about a time he saw Marshall take the time to speak with a young American soldier who had accidentally entered the same room. The young man was starstruck to have accidentally stumbled upon Marshall, yet Marshall still patiently and politely engaged the soldier in conversation.Template:Sfn

Tributes and memorialsEdit

File:Marshall Statue Germany.jpg

A statue of General Marshall is unveiled at the George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies on 30 April 1998.

Template:Main list Two non-profit organizations, the George C. Marshall Foundation and the George C. Marshall International Center, actively propagate General Marshall's legacy. The Marshall Foundation oversees Marshall's official papers and over two million other documents relating to the 20th century. The International Center preserves Marshall's home, Dodona Manor, as a museum and hosts educational programs focusing on Marshall's life, leadership, and role in American history.Template:Sfn

Numerous streets are named for General Marshall, including George-Marshall-Straße in Wiesbaden, Germany and George-C.-Marshall-Ring in Oberursel, Germany.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

On 30 April 1998, the George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies unveiled the first public statue of General Marshall in Europe in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany.Template:Sfn The slightly larger-than-life statue was sponsored by the Marshall Center, the Friends of the Marshall Center and the City of Garmisch-Partenkirchen. It shows Marshall in uniform walking across a bronze bridge, facing east, to greet new friends and allies and was designed by artist Christiane Horn of Wartenberg, Bavaria. Vernon A. Walters, former U.S. ambassador to Germany, was a keynote speaker during the dedication ceremony.Template:Sfn

In film and fictionEdit

Marshall has been played in film and television by:

Keith Andes in the 1970 film Tora! Tora! Tora!Template:Sfn
Ward Costello in the 1977 film MacArthur.Template:Sfn
Dana Andrews in the 1979 film Ike, The War Years.Template:Sfn
Bill Morey in the 1980 television film Enola Gay: The Men, the Mission, the Atomic Bomb.Template:Sfn
Norman Burton in the 1988 miniseries War and Remembrance.Template:Sfn
Hal Holbrook in the 1989 television film Day One.Template:Sfn
Harris Yulin in the 1995 television movie Truman.Template:Sfn
Harve Presnell in the 1998 film Saving Private Ryan.Template:Sfn
Scott Wilson in the 2001 film Pearl Harbor.Template:Sfn
Donald Eugene McCoy in the 2009 Chinese movie The Founding of a Republic.Template:Sfn
Will Roberts in the 2023 film Oppenheimer.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Dates of rankEdit

File:Nomination by Franklin D. Roosevelt of George Catlett Marshall to be Major General and Frank Maxwell Andrews to be... - NARA - 306448.tif

President Roosevelt's nomination of General Marshall to be Major General. 30 June 1939

Marshall's dates of rank were:Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Insignia	Rank	Component	Date
No pin insignia in 1902	Second lieutenant	United States Army	2 February 1901 (Appointment accepted 2 February 1902)
File:US-O2 insignia.svg	First lieutenant	United States Army	7 March 1907
File:US-O3 insignia.svg	Captain	United States Army	1 July 1916
File:US-O4 insignia.svg	Major	National Army	5 August 1917
File:US-O5 insignia.svg	Lieutenant colonel	National Army	5 January 1918
File:US-O6 insignia.svg	Colonel	National Army	27 August 1918
File:US-O3 insignia.svg	Captain	Regular Army	30 June 1920 (Reverted to permanent rank)
File:US-O4 insignia.svg	Major	Regular Army	1 July 1920
File:US-O5 insignia.svg	Lieutenant colonel	Regular Army	21 August 1923
File:US-O6 insignia.svg	Colonel	Regular Army	1 September 1933
File:US-O7 insignia.svg	Brigadier general	Regular Army	1 October 1936
File:US-O8 insignia.svg	Major general	Regular Army	1 September 1939
File:US-O10 insignia.svg	General	Army of the United States	1 September 1939
File:US-O11 insignia.svg	General of the Army	Army of the United States	16 December 1944
File:US-O11 insignia.svg	General of the Army	Regular Army	11 April 1946

Note – Marshall served as Secretary of State from 21 January 1947 to 20 January 1949. He retired from the Army on 28 February 1947 and returned to active duty on 1 March 1949.<ref>US Army Register.

1950.  pg. 362.</ref>Template:Sfn

Awards and decorationsEdit

File:General George C. Marshall receives the Distinguished Service Medal from President Harry S. Truman in 1945.jpg

President Harry S. Truman awarding General Marshall an Oak Leaf Cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal on 26 November 1945.

File:George Marshall's Legion of Honour.png

General Marshall's Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (France)

U.S. Military Decorations
Template:Ribbon devices	Army Distinguished Service Medal with one Oak Leaf Cluster Template:Sfn
File:Silver Star ribbon.svg	Silver Star Template:Sfn
Former U.S. Army Marksmanship Badge for rifle.	Expert Rifleman Badge Template:Sfn
U.S. Service Medals
File:Philippine Campaign Medal ribbon.svg	Philippine Campaign Medal Template:Sfn
Mexican Border Service Medal	Mexican Border Service MedalTemplate:Sfn
Template:Ribbon devices	World War I Victory Medal with five campaign clasps Template:Sfn Template:Sfn
File:Army of Occupation of Germany ribbon.svg	Army of Occupation of Germany Medal Template:Sfn
Template:Ribbon devices	American Defense Service Medal with Foreign Service Clasp Template:Sfn
File:American Campaign Medal ribbon.svg	American Campaign Medal (First recipient)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal	Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal Template:Sfn
Template:Ribbon devices	European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with two bronze service starsTemplate:Sfn
File:World War II Victory Medal ribbon.svg	World War II Victory Medal Template:Sfn
File:National Defense Service Medal ribbon.svg	National Defense Service Medal Template:Sfn
Overseas Service Chevrons	Four Overseas Chevrons (for service in World War I)Template:Sfn
Army Overseas Service Bar	One Overseas Service Bar Template:Sfn
Foreign Orders
File:Order of the Bath (ribbon).svg	Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (United Kingdom)Template:Sfn
File:Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg	Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (France)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>
File:Order of Blue Sky and White Sun with Grand Cordon ribbon.png	Order of Blue Sky and White Sun (Republic of China)<ref>Academia Historica 001-035100-00103-016</ref>
File:BRA Ordem do Merito Militar Gra-cruz.png	Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit (Brazil)Template:Sfn
File:CHL Order of Merit of Chile - Grand Cross BAR.svg	Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (Chile)Template:Sfn
File:COL Order of Boyaca - Grand Cross BAR.svg	Grand Cross of the Order of Boyacá Cherifien (Colombia)Template:Sfn
File:PRT Order of Christ - Commander BAR.svg	Member 1st Class of the Order of Military Merit (Cuba)Template:Sfn
File:Order of Abdon Calderon First Class.svg	Member 1st Class of the Order of Abdon Calderon (Ecuador)Template:Sfn
File:GRE Order of George I - Grand Cross BAR.png	Knight Grand Cross with swords of the Order of George I (Greece)Template:Sfn
File:Cavaliere di gran Croce Regno SSML BAR.svg	Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Italy)Template:Sfn
File:Gran croce OCI BAR.svg	Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy (Italy)Template:Sfn
File:Ordre de l'Ouissam Alaouite GC ribbon (Maroc).svg	Grand Cross of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite (Morocco)Template:Sfn
File:Order of Orange-Nassau ribbon - Knight Grand Cross.svg	Knight Grand Cross with swords of the Order of Orange-Nassau (Netherlands)Template:Sfn
File:PER Order of the Sun of Peru - Grand Officer BAR.png	Grand Officer of the Order of the Sun (Peru)Template:Sfn
File:Order of Suvorov 106x30.png	Order of Suvorov First Class (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)<ref>Template:Citation</ref>
Foreign Decorations and Medals
File:CroixdeGuerreFR-BronzePalm.png	Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 with bronze palm (France)Template:Sfn
File:Medal for the Centennial of the Republic of Liberia.png	Medal for the Centennial of the Republic of Liberia (Liberia)Template:Sfn
File:DK Forsvarets Medalje for Faldne i Tjeneste Ribbon.png	Silver Medal for Bravery (Montenegro)Template:Sfn
File:PAN Medalla de la Solidaridad.png	Medal of Solidarity, 2nd Class (Panama)Template:Sfn
Ribbon – QE II Coronation Medal	Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal (United Kingdom)Template:Sfn
File:Fourragère CG.png	Fourragère in the colors of the Croix de Guerre (France)Template:Sfn

Civilian honorsEdit

File:SAAM-1966.110.41 Marshall Medal.jpg

General Marshall's Congressional Gold Medal. Designed by Anthony de Francisci in 1946.

Date	Awarding Organization	Award
1939	Society of the Cincinnati	Honorary Membership <ref>Roster of the Society of the Cincinnati as of 11 May 1944. 1945. pg. 55.</ref>
1943	American Legion	Distinguished Service MedalTemplate:Sfn
1943	Time magazine	Man of the Year Template:Sfn
1944	Pennsylvania Society	Gold Medal for Distinguished AchievementTemplate:Sfn
1945	Reserve Officers Association	Permanent Membership
1945	Theodore Roosevelt Association	Distinguished Service Medal of HonorTemplate:Sfn
1946	United States Congress	Congressional Gold Medal Template:Sfn
1946	American Philosophical Society	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>
1947	Freedom House	Freedom AwardTemplate:Sfn
1947	Time magazine	Man of the YearTemplate:Sfn
1948	Grand Lodge of New York	Distinguished Achievement Award
1948	Kappa Alpha Order	Award for Distinguished AchievementTemplate:Sfn
1948	Variety Clubs International	International Humanitarian AwardTemplate:Sfn
1949	American Planning Association	Gold MedalTemplate:Sfn
1949	New Orleans, Louisiana	Key to the City Template:Sfn
1949	San Juan, Puerto Rico	Key to the CityTemplate:Sfn
1949	Fraternal Order of Eagles	National Civic Service AwardTemplate:Sfn
1949	New York Board of Trade	Award for distinguished service and contribution to the American wayTemplate:Sfn
1949	U.S. Conference of Mayors	Award for Distinguished Public ServiceTemplate:Sfn
1950	Franklin Institute	Honorary Membership
1950	Youngstown, Ohio	Key to the CityTemplate:Sfn
1950	Disabled American Veterans, New York Chapter	Citizenship AwardTemplate:Sfn
1951	Commonwealth of Virginia	Virginia Distinguished Service MedalTemplate:Sfn
1952	Four Freedoms Fund	Four Freedoms Fund AwardTemplate:Sfn
1953	Norwegian Nobel Committee	Nobel Peace Prize Template:Sfn
1954	American Veterans	10th Anniversary AwardTemplate:Sfn
1956	Woodrow Wilson Foundation	Award for Distinguished ServiceTemplate:Sfn
1957	Organization for European Economic Cooperation	Silver Medal
1957	Commonwealth of Pennsylvania	Meritorious MedalTemplate:Sfn
1959	Aachen, Germany	Charlemagne Prize Template:Sfn
1959	Virginia Military Institute	New Market Medal

Honorary degreesEdit

Honorary degreesTemplate:Sfn Template:Sfn
Location	Date	School	Degree	Gave Commencement Address
Template:Flagu	1934	Command and General Staff College	Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)Template:Sfn
Template:Flagu	1939	Washington and Jefferson College	Doctor of Science (Sd.D)Template:Sfn
Template:Flagu	1940	Pennsylvania Military College	Doctor of Military Science (DScMil)Template:Sfn
Template:Flagu	1941	College of William and Mary	Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)Template:Sfn	Yes
Template:Flagu	15 June 1941	Trinity College	Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)Template:Sfn	Yes
Template:Flagu	1942	Norwich University	Doctor of Military Science (DScMil)Template:Sfn
Template:Flagu	1947	Columbia University	Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)Template:Sfn
Template:Flagu	22 February 1947	Princeton University	Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)Template:Sfn	Yes
Template:Flagu	6 June 1947	Harvard University	Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)Template:Sfn
Template:Flagu	16 June 1947	Amherst College	Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)Template:Sfn	Yes
Template:Flagu	16 June 1947	Brown University	Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)Template:Sfn	Yes
Template:Flagu	1947	McGill University	Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)Template:Sfn
Template:Flagu	1947	Lafayette College	Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)Template:Sfn
Template:Flagu	1947	University of California	Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)Template:Sfn
Template:Flagu	1947	University of London	Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)Template:Sfn
Template:Flagu	11 November 1947	University of Oxford	Doctor of Civil Law (DCL)Template:Sfn

{{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B=Template:Ambox Template:Main other }}

NotesEdit

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ReferencesEdit

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Works citedEdit

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BooksEdit

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Template:Citation. Electronic version based on The Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 2, "We Cannot Delay," 1 July 1939 – 6 December 1941 (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p. 616 [Pentagon Office, Selected Correspondence, Box 69, Folder 18. Holding ID: 2-553].
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PeriodicalsEdit

News & MediaEdit

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External linksEdit

Template:Nobelprize
The Marshall Foundation
The George C. Marshall International Center
George C. Marshall Center, Garmisch Germany Template:Webarchive
The Marshall Plan Speech MP3
The Marshall Films Collection
Marshall Scholarships
The Marshall Plan Speech
"George C. Marshall: Soldier of Peace" (Smithsonian Institution)
Annotated bibliography for George Marshall from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921–1969, Chapter XIX, General of the Army George C. Marshall, Special Military Funeral, 16 – 20 October 1959 Template:Webarchive by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark. United States Army Center of Military History, 1991. CMH Pub 90–1.
The George C. Marshall Index at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, Part 1 and Part 2
Task Force Marshall Information Page
Joint Committee on The Investigation of Pearl Harbor, 79th Congress
Template:Internet Archive short film
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George C. Marshall

Contents

Early life and educationEdit

Early infantry career and the PhilippinesEdit

World War IEdit

Between the warsEdit

World War IIEdit

Expands military force fortyfoldEdit

Replacement system criticizedEdit

Planned invasion of EuropeEdit

Analysis of Pearl Harbor intelligence failureEdit

Mission to ChinaEdit

Secretary of StateEdit

Secretary of DefenseEdit

Korean WarEdit

Relief of General MacArthurEdit

Later lifeEdit

RetirementEdit

American Battle Monuments CommissionEdit

Coronation of Queen Elizabeth IIEdit

Family lifeEdit

Death and burialEdit

Reputation and legacyEdit

Tributes and memorialsEdit

In film and fictionEdit

Dates of rankEdit

Awards and decorationsEdit

Civilian honorsEdit

Honorary degreesEdit

See alsoEdit

NotesEdit

ReferencesEdit

Works citedEdit

BooksEdit

PeriodicalsEdit

News & MediaEdit

Further readingEdit

Primary sourcesEdit

External linksEdit