Guṇa

Template:Short description Template:About Template:Hatnote group Template:Italic title Template:IAST (Template:Langx) is a concept in Hinduism, which can be translated as "quality, peculiarity, attribute, property".<ref name="gun">guna Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="spokensanskrit.de">guNa Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref>

The concept is originally notable as a feature of Samkhya philosophy.<ref>Larson, Gerald James. Classical Samkhya: An Interpretation. p. 37. Referring to the opinions of Surendranath Dasgupta. Quote: "An older school of Samkhya can be seen in the Caraka Samhita and in the doctrines of Pancasikha in Mahabharata 12.219. This school accepted only twenty-four principles. It included purusa within the avyakta prakrti. It had no theory of the gunas, and the ultimate salvation state was a kind of unconscious annihilation."</ref> The guṇas are now a key concept in nearly all schools of Hindu philosophy.<ref name=jamesg>James G. Lochtefeld, "Guna", in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A–M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, Template:ISBN, p. 265</ref> There are three guṇas (triguṇa), according to this worldview, that have always been and continue to be present in all things and beings in the world.<ref name=jamesg /> These three guṇas are called: Template:IAST (goodness, calmness, harmonious), Template:IAST (passion, activity, movement), and Template:IAST (ignorance, inertia, laziness).<ref name=aw>Alban Widgery (1930), "The principles of Hindu Ethics", International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 234–237</ref> All of these three guṇas are present in everyone and everything; it is the proportion that is different, according to Hindu worldview. The interplay of these guṇas defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.<ref name=jamesg /><ref name="Bernard 74-76" />

In some contexts, it may mean "a subdivision, species, kind, quality", or an operational principle or tendency of something or someone.<ref name="Bernard 74-76">Theos Bernard (1999), Hindu Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 74–76</ref> In human behavior studies, Guna means personality, innate nature and psychological attributes of an individual.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Like many technical terms in other languages, guṇa can be difficult to encapsulate with a single English word. Its original and common meaning is a thread, implying the original materials that weave together to make up reality. The usual, but approximate translation in common usage is "a quality".<ref name=khp>Karl H. Potter (2011), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2: Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, p. 112</ref>

Terminology

Guna appears in many ancient and medieval Indian texts. Depending on the context, it means:<ref name="gun" /><ref name="spokensanskrit.de"/><ref name=gjl />

• string or thread, rope, sinew, chord (music, vowel phonology and arts literature)<ref>W Raffé (1952), Rāgas and Rāginīs: A key to Hindu aesthetics, The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 11(2): 105–117</ref><ref name=benwd>Benjamin Woodbridge Dwight, Template:Google books</ref>
• virtue, merit, excellence (dharma and soteriological literature)<ref name=gjl>Gerald James Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies – Samkhya, A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 65–66</ref><ref>E Yamaguchi (1967), "A Consideration to Pratyaya-Sarga", Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 15, 16–22</ref>
• quality, peculiarity, tendency, attribute, property, species (sastras, sutras, the Epics, food and analytical literature)<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The root and origins

Guṇa is both a root and a word in Sanskrit. Its different context-driven meanings are derived from either the root or the word. In verse VI.36 of Nirukta by Yāska, a 1st millennium BC text on Sanskrit grammar and language that preceded Panini, Guṇa is declared to be derived from another root Gaṇa,<ref>gaNana Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Germany</ref> which means "to count, enumerate".<ref name=kv /> This meaning has led to its use in speciation, subdivision, classification of anything by peculiarity, attribute or property. This meaning has also led to its use with prefixes such as Dviguṇa (twofold), Triguṇa (threefold) and so on.

In other contexts, such as phonology, grammar and arts, "Guṇa-" takes the meaning of āmantraṇā (आमन्त्रणा, addressing, invitation) or abhyāsa (अभ्यास, habit, practice).<ref name=kv /> In the Mahabharata Book 6 Chapter 2, the meaning of guṇa similarly comes in the sense of addressing each part (the root implying āmantraṇā), and thereby it means avayava (अवयव, member, subdivision, portion). In Sanskrit treatises on food and cooking, guṇa means quality, tendency and nature of ingredient. Ancient South Indian commentators, such as Lingayasurin, explain that the meaning of guṇa as "thread, string" comes from the root guṇa- in the sense of repetition (abhyāsa), while the Telugu commentator Mallinatha explains the root guṇa- is to be understood in Sisupalavadha as āmredana (आम्रेडन, reiteration, repetition).<ref name=kv /> Larson and Bhattacharya suggest that the "thread" metaphor relates to that which connects and runs between what we objectively observe to the tattva (तत्त्व, elementary property, principle, invisible essence) of someone or something.<ref name=gjl /><ref>tattva Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref>

In the context of philosophy, morality and understanding nature, "Guna-" with more dental na takes the meaning of addressing quality, substance, tendency and property.<ref name=gjl /><ref name=kv /> In abstract discussion, it includes all hues of qualities – desirable, neutral or undesirable; but if unspecified, it is assumed with good faith to be good and divine in Indian philosophy. Thus, Guṇi from the root "Guṇa-" means someone or something with "divine qualities", as in Svetasvatara Upanishad hymn VI.2.<ref name=kv>Kapila Vatsyayan, Kalātattvakośa: Manifestation of nature : Sr̥ṣṭi vistāra, Volume 4, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 144–148</ref>

The gunas under various philosophies

Template:Hinduism Innate qualities and tendencies are key ancient concepts in Indian literature. Maitrayaniya Upanishad is one of the earliest texts making an explicit reference to Hindu trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva and linking them to their Guna – as creator/activity, preserver/purity, destroyer/recycler respectively.<ref>G. M. Bailey (1979), Trifunctional Elements in the Mythology of the Hindu Trimūrti, Numen, Vol. 26, Fasc. 2, pp. 152–163</ref> The idea of three types of guṇa, innate nature and forces that together transform and keep changing the world is, however, found in numerous earlier and later Indian texts.<ref name=jg>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Samkhya school of Hinduism

In Samkhya philosophy, a Template:IAST is one of three "attributes, tendencies, qualities": sattva, rajas and tamas. This category of Template:IASTs has been widely adopted by various schools of Hinduism for categorizing behavior and natural phenomena. The three qualities are:

• Sattva is the Template:IAST of balance, harmony, goodness, purity, universal-ism, holism, construction, creativity, positivity, peacefulness, and virtue.<ref>Alter, Joseph S., Yoga in Modern India, 2004 Princeton University Press, p. 55</ref>
• Rajas is the Template:IAST of passion, activity, neither good nor bad and sometimes either, self-centeredness, egoism, individualization, drivenness, movement, and dynamism.<ref name=aw /><ref name="ReferenceA">Feuerstein, Georg The Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga, Shambhala Publications, 1997</ref>
• Tamas is the Template:IAST of imbalance, disorder, chaos, anxiety, impurity, destruction, delusion, negativity, dullness or inactivity, apathy, inertia or lethargy, violence, viciousness, and ignorance.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref>Whicher, Ian The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana, 1998 SUNY Press, p. 110</ref>

In Indian philosophy, these qualities are not considered present in an either-or fashion. Rather, everyone and everything has all three, only in different proportions and in different contexts.<ref name=jamesg /> The living being or substance is viewed as the net result of the joint effect of these three qualities.<ref name=jamesg /><ref name=aw />

According to Samkya school, no one and nothing is either purely Sattvik or purely Rajasik or purely Tamasik.<ref name=aw /> One's nature and behavior constitute a complex interplay of all three guṇas, in varying degrees. In some, the conduct is Rajasik with significant influence of Sattvik guṇa; in some it is Rajasik with significant influence of Tamasik guṇa, and so on.<ref name=aw />

The balance of Gunas of everything and everyone can change and does. However, change in one quality faces inertia from other two qualities in Indian worldview. Change needs internal or external influence or reinforcement, as knowledge and force to transform. The force to change comes from the Rajas guṇa, the Sattva guṇa empowers one towards harmonious and constructive change, while Tamas guṇa checks or retards the process.

In Indian mythology, Vishnu is envisioned with more Sattva, Brahma with more Rajas, and Shiva seen with all three Gunas.<ref name=jg />

Nyaya school of Hinduism

In Nyaya (Generality or common features) school of Hinduism, there is extensive debate on what Guna means, and whether quality is innate, subjective or describable. Early scholars of this school identified 17 qualities, which later scholars expanded to 24 Template:IAST. Different scholars of this school list the 24 differently; for example, Bhasarvajna disallows 6 of the 24 commonly accepted by the ancient scholars.<ref name=khp /> The most commonly accepted list is: color, taste, smell, touch, number, contact, disjunction, farness, nearness, dimension, separateness, knowledge, pleasure, frustration, desire, hatred, effort, weight, fluidity, viscosity, dispositional tendency, merit, demerit, and sound.<ref name=khp2>Karl H. Potter (2011), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2: Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 112–132</ref>

Nyaya school considers quality as non-repeatable, a conceptual theme not found in Western philosophy where "quality" is presumed to be repeatable. It is also not found in some parallel schools of Hinduism. Repeatability means that the white in one object is same as white in other object, and white means the same thing. Nyaya scholars hold that "whiteness" is a guṇa of "white", but that is different from "whiteness" of an object or living being. To them, white has many hues and the "whiteness" is subjective.<ref name=khp2 />

In Laksanavali, an ancient Indian text by Udayana, Guna is discussed with more nuance. For example, he writes, "quality of earth" is specific only if it meets three conditions: it occurs in earth, does not occur in anything that is not earthy, and be a distinctive quality that cannot be described as combination of other qualities.<ref>Karl H. Potter (2011), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2: Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 113–114</ref>

Vaisheshika school of Hinduism

In Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, which is most related to Nyaya school, states that our awareness, understanding and judgments of any person and thing in the world is relational. All relations, holds this school of Hinduism, is dyadic between anuyogin (referend) and pratiyogin (referent).<ref name="kpsb" /> Guna (quality) is considered one of the seven padārtha (category) of relations. The others are: inherence (samavaya), being (bhava), genus (samanya), species (vishesha), substance (dravya) and motion/action (karman). Unlike Vaisheshika, Nyaya considers inherence as subset of guṇa (quality).<ref name=kpsb>Karl H. Potter and Sibajiban Bhattacharya (1994), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 6: Indian Philosophical Analysis, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 15–24</ref>

Gangesha, a Nyaya scholar, suggests a somewhat different theory, stating that our awareness is of two types – true and false. True awareness is produced when we seek to observe some excellence (guṇa) in its cause, while false awareness results from observing fault (dosha) in its cause. In other words, in Gangesha's perspective, the observer's state of mind and attitude affects relational awareness.<ref>Karl H. Potter and Sibajiban Bhattacharya (1994), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 6: Indian Philosophical Analysis, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 97–117</ref>

Bhagavad Gita

Chapters 2, 3, 7, 13, 14, 17 and 18 of Bhagavad Gita discuss Guna.<ref name=ckc>Christopher Key Chapple, The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 185–194, 330–332, 634–661</ref> Verse 17.2 refers to the three Guna – sattvic, rajasic and tamasic – as innate nature (psychology or personality of an individual).<ref>Christopher Key Chapple, The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, p. 635</ref><ref name=gideon>Gideon Arulmani et al (2014), Handbook of Career Development: International Perspectives, Springer, Template:ISBN, pp. 139–143</ref> Sattvic guṇa is one driven by what is pure, truth, compassionate, without craving, doing the right because it is right, positive and good. Tamasic guṇa is one driven by what is impure, dark, destructive, aimed to hurt another, contemptuous, negative and vicious. Rajasic guṇa is one that is ego-driven, out of personal passion, active, ostentatious, seeking the approval of others.<ref name=ckc /><ref name=gideon />

In Chapters 17 and 18, Bhagavad Gita illustrates various items and actions by their three Guna. For example, three types of charity are discussed, and what makes charity Sattvic, Rajasic or Tamasic. Similarly, food, relationships, knowledge and actions are detailed in terms of the three Guna.<ref name=ckc /> In Chapter 18, for example:<ref name=ckc18action />

नियतं सङ्गरहितमरागद्वेषतः कृतम् । अफलप्रेप्सुना कर्म यत्तत्सात्त्विकमुच्यते ॥२३॥
यत्तु कामेप्सुना कर्म साहंकारेण वा पुनः । क्रियते बहुलायासं तद्राजसमुदाहृतम् ॥२४॥
अनुबन्धं क्षयं हिंसामनपेक्ष्य च पौरुषम् । मोहादारभ्यते कर्म यत्तत्तामसमुच्यते ॥२५॥
Action that is virtuous, thought through, free from attachment, and without craving for results is considered Sattvic; Action that is driven purely by craving for pleasure, selfishness and much effort is Rajasic; Action that is undertaken because of delusion, disregarding consequences, without considering loss or injury to others or self, is called Tamasic.{{#if:Bhagavad Gita|{{#if:|}}

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Similarly, knowledge that is attached to object of action, without concern for understanding the cause, without concern for purpose or significance, is Tamasic knowledge; knowledge that is segregated, that considers everything unconnected, individualistic and meaningless is Rajasic; knowledge that sees one being in all beings, that seeks the whole, a unity in diversity, and similarities in the divided components is Sattvic.<ref>Christopher Key Chapple, The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 681–683</ref>

Furthermore, in Chapter 2 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna advises Arjuna to transcend the three modes of existence and other forms of dualism.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Guna in theory of ethics

Guna is one of the four important elements in the framework of ethical theories in Indian philosophy.<ref name=aw /><ref name=scc>S. Cromwell Crawford (2003), Chapter: Hindu Ethics, in Hindu Bioethics for the Twenty-first Century, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 11–30</ref> Bommer et al. suggest that ethical/non-ethical behavior is an outcome of individual attributes, personal environment, social environment and institutional rules and laws.<ref>Michael Bommer et al (1987), A behavioral model of ethical and unethical decision making, Journal of Business Ethics, 6(4): 265–280</ref> Guna theory is the ancient Indian philosophy on individual attributes, while the theories of Dharma and Ashramas address the personal and social environment, as well as part of its institutional framework. Guna theory, states Crawford,<ref name=scc /> represents a hierarchical theory of values, where the relative order of hierarchy is suggested to vary within each individual along with the relative proportion of each guṇa. The interplay of three guṇas affect an individual's values, and in Hindu worldview, these values affect individual's actions, as well as the happiness and serenity experienced by the individual.<ref name=jamesg /><ref>N Pani (2009), Hinduism, in Handbook of Economics and Ethics (Editors: Jan Peil and Irene Staveren), Edward Elgar, Template:ISBN, 216–221</ref><ref>NK Shastree, Value Management In Professions, Template:ISBN, pp. 21–30</ref> The guṇas are not considered static and set. Hindu literature, such as the Bhagavad Gita, state it to be dynamic and changeable with knowledge, introspection and understanding of sva-dharma. Realizing one's sva-dharma and Self is emphasized in Indian ethical theories. The highest state of existence and bliss, in Advaita school of Hinduism for example, is jivanmukti (Self-realization) and moksha.<ref>Klaus Klostermaier (1985), Mokṣa and Critical Theory, Philosophy East and West, 35(1): 61–71</ref><ref>Karl Potter (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, Vol. 3, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 210–215</ref>

Guna theory's perspective on values constituting human personality is unique yet congruent with other ethical theories.<ref>M Innes-Brown and S Chatterjee (1999), The Relevance of the Guna Theory in the Congruence of Eastern Values and Western Management Practice, Journal of Human Values, 5(2): 93–102</ref>

Guna in cosmology

Samkhya cosmology combines the three Template:IAST with primal matter (universe, Prakrti).<ref name=lochtefeldprakriti>James G. Lochtefeld (2001), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Rosen Publishing, Template:ISBN, pp. 224, 265, 520</ref><ref>Axel Michaels (2003), Notions of Nature in Traditional Hinduism, Environment across Cultures, Springer, Template:ISBN, pp. 111–121</ref> These are present in all things and beings in the world, and it is their interplay that defines the physical and psychological character and nature.<ref name=lochtefeldprakriti /> They serve as the fundamental operating principles or 'tendencies' of Template:IAST which are called: Template:IAST, Template:IAST, and Template:IAST.<ref name="Bernard 74-76" /><ref name="Bhagavad-Gita 1969, p 128">Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita, a New Translation and Commentary, Chapter 1–6. Penguin Books, 1969, p. 128 (v 45) and p. 269 v. 13</ref> When any of the guṇa is out of balance in a being or object, the Samkhya school suggests that a pattern of evolution starts, affecting not only itself but its environment.<ref name=lochtefeldprakriti /> Purusha, or consciousness, is considered separate from Prakriti and changeless.<ref name=lochtefeldprakriti />

Guna in other contexts

Sanskrit grammar

In the Sanskrit grammatical tradition (Vyakarana), Template:IAST refers to a set of normal-length vowels that are less reduced than the basic set (in modern terms, the zero grade), but more reduced than the [[vṛddhi|Template:IAST]] vowels (in modern terms, the lengthened grade). As an example, ṛ, i, u are basic (zero-grade) vowels, with corresponding Template:IAST (full-grade) vowels ar, e, o and Template:IAST (lengthened-grade) vowels ār, ai, au. (This is more understandable once it is realized that, at an earlier stage of development, Sanskrit e and o were ai and au, and Sanskrit ai and au were āi and āu.) Guṇa corresponds to what is now termed the full grade in Indo-European ablaut. Another orthography and phonology concept related to Guṇa is Vṛddhi.<ref>MW Woollaston, Template:Google books, Edward Hall, London</ref> These innovations are not unique to Sanskrit, but also found in Greek, Latin, Italian and to some extent Russian.<ref>HA Woodham, Proceedings of the Philological Society, Template:Google books, No. 9, pp. 98–101</ref> Guna and other rules of language for Sanskrit are described by Pāṇini in his Ashtadhyayi.<ref>Macdonald, Arthur Anthony (1927 [1886]), A Sanskrit Grammar for Students p. 11. Oxford: Oxford University Press Template:ISBN</ref>

Ayurveda

In the terminology of Ayurveda (traditional medicine), guṇa can refer to one of twenty fundamental properties which any substance can exhibit, arranged in ten pairs of antonyms, viz. heavy/light, cold/hot, unctuous/dry, dull/sharp, stable/mobile, soft/hard, non-slimy/slimy, smooth/coarse, minute/gross, viscous/liquid.<ref>Template:Cite book p. 76, citing Sushrutasamhita 25.36.</ref>

Guṇa is also a concept in Ayurvedic medicine, as a system to assess conditions and diets. For this reason Triguṇa and tridosha are considered to be related in the traditions of Ayurveda.

See also

• Guṇa (Jainism), the concept in Jainism
• Jain (Satvika)
• Maya
• Nirguna Brahman, Saguna Brahman

Further reading

• Narain, Harsh. "Finding an English Equivalent for 'Guna'". Philosophy East and West 11.1 (1961): 45.

External links

• Sattva, Rajas & Tamas From The Mahabharata
• Guna debate 1, One of many in The Vedanta-Sutras, Ramanuja's views, George Thibaut (Translator)
• Guna debate 2, One of many in The Vedanta-Sutras, Shankara's views, George Thibaut (Translator)
• Chapter 2: Each is Great in His Own Place Sattva, Rajas & Tamas – gunas and Karma Yoga, Vivekananda
• Sattva, Rajas & Tamas From a Shamanic perspective Template:Webarchive