Hindu deities

Template:Multiple image Template:Hinduism Hindu deities are the gods and goddesses in Hinduism. Deities in Hinduism are as diverse as its traditions, and a Hindu can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, even agnostic, atheistic, or humanist.<ref name="juliuslipnerhindu82">Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd edition, Routledge, Template:ISBN, p. 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."</ref><ref>Lester Kurtz (ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, Template:ISBN, Academic Press, 2008</ref><ref>M. K. Gandhi, The Essence of Hindu, Editor: V. B. Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see p. 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."</ref> The terms and epithets for deities within the diverse traditions of Hinduism vary, and include Deva, Devi, Ishvara, Ishvari, Bhagavān and Bhagavati.<ref>Radhakrishnan and Moore (1967, Reprinted 1989), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 37-39, 401-403, 498-503</ref><ref name="mirceaelaide73" />Template:Refn

The deities of Hinduism have evolved from the Vedic era (2nd millennium BCE) through the medieval era (1st millennium CE), regionally within Nepal, Pakistan, India and in Southeast Asia, and across Hinduism's diverse traditions.<ref name=nickgier>Nicholas Gier (2000), Spiritual Titanism: Indian, Chinese, and Western Perspectives, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 59-76</ref><ref name=fowlergita>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 253-262</ref> The Hindu deity concept varies from a personal god as in Yoga school of Hindu philosophy,<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. 39-41;
Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 38-39;
Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientific Basis, Dover, Template:ISBN, pp. 56-58</ref> to thirty-three major deities in the Vedas,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> to hundreds of deities mentioned in the Puranas of Hinduism.<ref>Sanjukta Gupta (2013), Lakṣmī Tantra: A Pāñcarātra Text, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, p. 166</ref> Examples of contemporary major deities include Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> These deities have distinct and complex personalities, yet are often viewed as aspects of the same Ultimate Reality called Brahman.<ref name=":2">Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 77-78</ref>Template:Refn From ancient times, the idea of equivalence has been cherished for all Hindus, in its texts and in early 1st-millennium sculpture with concepts such as Harihara (Half Vishnu, Half Shiva)<ref>David Leeming (2001), A Dictionary of Asian Mythology, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 67</ref> and Ardhanārīshvara (half Shiva, half Parvati),<ref>Ellen Goldberg (2002), The Lord who is half woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and feminist perspective, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 1–4</ref> with myths and temples that feature them together, declaring they are the same.<ref>TA Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol. 2, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 334-335</ref><ref>Fred Kleiner (2012), Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Global History, Cengage, Template:ISBN, pp. 443-444</ref><ref>Cynthia Packert Atherton (1997), The Sculpture of Early Medieval Rajasthan, Brill, Template:ISBN, pp. 42-46</ref> Major deities have inspired their own Hindu traditions, such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism, but with shared mythology, ritual grammar, theosophy, axiology and polycentrism.<ref>Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 562-563</ref><ref name=juliuslipner371>Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. 371-375</ref><ref name=frazierintrop2>Template:Cite book</ref> Some Hindu traditions, such as Smartism from the mid 1st millennium CE, have included multiple major deities as henotheistic manifestations of Saguna Brahman, and as a means to realizing Nirguna Brahman.<ref name=fxclooney/><ref name=mmyers>Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. 124-127</ref><ref name="tompad"/> In Samkhya philosophy, Devata or deities are considered as "natural sources of energy" who have Sattva as the dominant Guna.Template:Sfn

Hindu deities are represented with various icons and anicons in sculptures and paintings, called Murtis and Pratimas.<ref name="klausklost264">Klaus Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 264-267</ref><ref name="Pratima Hinduism">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref name=pkacharya>PK Acharya, An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture, Oxford University Press, p. 426</ref> Some Hindu traditions, such as ancient Charvakas, rejected all deities and concept of god or goddess,<ref>V. V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon - Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (p. 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Charvaka school."</ref><ref name="John Clayton 2010 page 150">John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 150</ref><ref name=":1">A Goel (1984), Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science, Sterling, Template:ISBN, pages 149-151;
R. Collins (2000), The Sociology of Philosophies, Harvard University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 836</ref> while 19th-century British colonial era movements such as the Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj rejected deities and adopted monotheistic concepts similar to Abrahamic religions.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Glyn Richards (1990), The World's Religions: The Religions of Asia (Editor: Friedhelm Hardy), Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. 173-176</ref> Hindu deities have been adopted in other religions such as Jainism,<ref>John E. Cort (1998), Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 218-220</ref> and in regions outside India, such as predominantly Buddhist Thailand and Japan, where they continue to be revered in regional temples or arts.<ref name=hajime26/><ref>Ellen London (2008), Thailand Condensed: 2,000 Years of History & Culture, Marshall Cavendish, Template:ISBN, p. 74</ref><ref>Trudy Ring et al. (1996), International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania, Routledge, Template:ISBN, p. 692</ref>

In ancient and medieval era texts of Hinduism, the human body is described as a temple,<ref name=holmbowker76>Jean Holm and John Bowker (1998), Sacred Place, Bloomsbury Academic, Template:ISBN, pp. 76-78</ref><ref>Michael Coogan (2003), The Illustrated Guide to World Religions, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 149</ref> and deities are described to be parts residing within it,<ref>Alain Daniélou (2001), The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism, Template:ISBN, pp. 82-83</ref><ref>Patrick Olivelle (1992), The Samnyasa Upanisads, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 147-148 with footnotes 2 and 5</ref> while the Brahman (Absolute Reality, God)<ref name=fxclooney>For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 51-58, 111-115;
For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis - Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pp. 18-35</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> is described to be the same, or of similar nature, as the Atman (Self), which Hindus believe is eternal and within every living being.<ref name="monierwilliams2037">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="jkoller"/><ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347">R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, Template:ISBN, pp. 345-347</ref>

Devas and devis

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File:জি. ডি. ব্লক সল্টলেক দুর্গা পুজো ২০১৮.jpg

Goddess Durga and a pantheon of other gods and goddesses being worshipped during Durga Puja Festival in Kolkata.

Deities in Hinduism are referred to as Deva (masculine) and Devi (feminine).<ref name="monierdevi">Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary" Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 496</ref><ref>John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (1998), Devi: Goddesses of India, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, p. 2</ref><ref>William K Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, p. 18</ref> The root of these terms means "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence".<ref name="monier">Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary" Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 492</ref>

In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Asuras.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 5-11, 22, 99-102</ref><ref>Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary" Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 121</ref> By the late Vedic period (c. 500 BCE), benevolent supernatural beings are referred to as Deva-Asuras. In post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.<ref name=nickgier/><ref name=fowlergita/> In some medieval Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their equally powerful, but malevolent counterparts referred to as the Asuras.<ref name=ang>Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>

Hindu deities are part of Hindu mythology, both Devas and Devis feature in one of many cosmological theories in Hinduism.<ref>Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology, Brill Academic, Template:ISBN, pp. 23-29</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 67</ref>

Characteristics of Vedic-era deities

In Vedic literature, Devas and Devis represent the forces of nature and some represent moral values (such as the Adityas, Varuna, and Mitra), each symbolizing the epitome of specialized knowledge, creative energy, exalted and magical powers (Siddhis).<ref>George Williams (2008), A Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 24-33</ref><ref name=binagupta>Bina Gupta (2011), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. 21-25</ref>

The most referred to Devas in the Rigveda are Indra, Agni (fire) and Soma, with "fire deity" called the friend of all humanity. Indra and Soma are two celebrated in a yajna fire ritual that marks major Hindu ceremonies. Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra (later given the exclusive epithet of Shiva), and Prajapati (later Brahma) are gods and hence Devas.<ref name=hajime26>Hajime Nakamura (1998), A Comparative History of Ideas, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 26-33</ref>

The Vedas describes a number of significant Devis such as Ushas (dawn), Prithvi (earth), Aditi (cosmic moral order), Saraswati (river, knowledge), Vāc (sound), Nirṛti (destruction), Ratri (night), Aranyani (forest), and bounty goddesses such as Dinsana, Raka, Puramdhi, Parendi, Bharati, Mahi, among others, mentioned in the Rigveda.<ref name=kinsley717>David Kinsley (2005), Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 6-17, 55-64</ref> Sri, also called Lakshmi, appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre-Buddhist, but verses dedicated to her do not suggest that her characteristics were fully developed in the Vedic era.<ref name=kinsley18>David Kinsley (2005), Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 18, 19</ref> All gods and goddesses are distinguished in the Vedic times, but in the post-Vedic texts (c. 500 BCE to 200 CE), and particularly in the early medieval era literature, they are ultimately seen as aspects or manifestations of one Brahman, the Supreme power.<ref name=kinsley18/><ref>Christopher John Fuller (2004), The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 41</ref>

Ananda Coomaraswamy states that Devas and Asuras in the Vedic lore are similar to Angels-Theoi-Gods and Titans of Greek mythology, both are powerful but have different orientations and inclinations, the Devas representing the powers of Light and the Asuras representing the powers of Darkness in Hindu mythology.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, Template:ISBN, p. 20</ref><ref name=":0"/> According to Coomaraswamy's interpretation of Devas and Asuras, both these natures exist in each human being, the tyrant and the angel is within each being, the best and the worst within each person struggles before choices and one's nature, and the Hindu formulation of Devas and Asuras is an eternal dance between these within each person.<ref>Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), "Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology", Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, pp. 373–418</ref><ref name=Gier>Nicholas Gier (1995), Hindu Titanism, Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, p. 76, see also 73-96</ref>

The Devas and Asuras, Angels and Titans, powers of Light and powers of Darkness in Rigveda, although distinct and opposite in operation, are in essence consubstantial, their distinction being a matter not of essence but of orientation, revolution, or transformation. In this case, the Titan is potentially an Angel, the Angel still by nature a Titan; the Darkness in actu is Light, the Light in potentia Darkness; whence the designations Asura and Deva may be applied to one and the same Person according to the mode of operation, as in Rigveda 1.163.3, "Trita art thou (Agni) by interior operation". {{#if:Ananda Coomaraswamy|{{#if:|}}

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Characteristics of medieval-era deities

In the Puranas and the Itihasas with the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.<ref name="nickgier"/><ref name=fowlergita/> According to the Bhagavad Gita (16.6–16.7), all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities (daivi sampad) and the demonic qualities (asuri sampad) within them.<ref name=fowlergita/><ref name=chrischapple/> The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare, as are pure demon-like evil individuals among human beings. Instead, the majority of humanity is multi-charactered with a few or many faults.<ref name=fowlergita/> According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives". It is only when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, violence, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined tendencies that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).<ref name="fowlergita"/><ref name=chrischapple>Christopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 610-629</ref>

File:Seal Surin.png

Indra is a Vedic era deity, found in south and southeast Asia. Above Indra is part of the seal of a Thailand state.

The Epics and medieval era texts, particularly the Puranas, developed extensive and richly varying mythologies associated with Hindu deities, including their genealogies.<ref name=ludorocher/><ref name=oliverleaman437>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. 437-439</ref><ref name=gregorybailey>Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, Template:ISBN, p. 139</ref> Several of the Purana texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.<ref name=ludorocher>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN, pp. 1-5, 12-21</ref> Other texts and commentators such as Adi Shankara explain that Hindu deities live or rule over the cosmic body as well as in the temple of the human body.<ref name=holmbowker76/><ref name=danielou57/> They remark that the Sun deity is the eyes, the Vāyu the nose, the Prajapati the sexual organs, the Lokapalas the ears, Chandra the mind, Mitra the inward breath, Varuna the outward breath, Indra the arms, Bṛhaspati the speech, Vishnu, whose stride is great, is the feet, and Māyā is the smile.<ref name=danielou57>Alain Daniélou (1991), The Myths and Gods of India, Princeton/Bollingen Paperbacks, Template:ISBN, pp. 57-60</ref>

Symbolism

Edelmann states that gods and anti-gods of Hinduism are symbolism for spiritual concepts. For example, god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self.<ref name=edelmann14/> Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".<ref name=edelmann14>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pp. 439-441</ref> Hindu deities in Vedic era, states Mahoney, are those artists with "powerfully inward transformative, effective and creative mental powers".<ref>William K Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 17, 27, 32</ref>

In Hindu mythology, everyone starts as an Asura, born of the same father. "Asuras who remain Asura" share the character of powerful beings craving for more power, more wealth, ego, anger, unprincipled nature, force and violence.<ref name=gierasurach/><ref name=stellaray/> The "Asuras who become Devas" in contrast are driven by an inner voice, seek understanding and meaning, prefer moderation, principled behavior, aligned with Ṛta and Dharma, knowledge and harmony.<ref name=gierasurach>Nicholas Gier (1995), Hindu Titanism, Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pp. 76-80</ref><ref name=stellaray>Stella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier (1986), The Hindu Temple, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 75-78</ref><ref>William K Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 50, 72-73</ref>

The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.<ref name=edelmann13/> In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such as Mahabali and Prahlada, conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.<ref name=edelmann13>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pp. 440-442</ref>

Ishvara

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File:Surya Majapahit Diagram.svg

Ishvara is, along with Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma, one of the 17 deities commonly found in Indonesian Surya Majapahit Hindu arts and records. However, Ishvara represents different concepts in various Hindu philosophies.

Another Hindu term that is sometimes translated as the deity is Ishvara, or various deities are described, state Sorajjakool et al., as "the personifications of various aspects of the same Ishvara".<ref>Siroj Sorajjakool, Mark Carr and Julius Nam (2009), World Religions, Routledge, Template:ISBN, p. 38</ref> The term Ishvara has a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.<ref name=mmwizvara>Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionary, Izvara, Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, University of Cologne, Germany</ref><ref>James Lochtefeld, "Ishvara", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. Template:ISBN, p. 306</ref><ref name=riepe>Dale Riepe (1961, Reprinted 1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 177-184, 208-215</ref> In ancient texts of Indian philosophy, Ishvara means supreme Self, Brahman (Highest Reality), ruler, king or husband depending on the context.<ref name=mmwizvara/> In medieval era texts, Ishvara means God, Supreme Being, personal god, or special Self depending on the school of Hinduism.<ref name=mirceaelaide73>Mircea Eliade (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 73-76</ref><ref name=riepe/><ref name=ianw>Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 82-86</ref>

Among the six systems of Hindu philosophy, Samkhya and Mimamsa do not consider the concept of Ishvara, i.e., a supreme being, relevant. Yoga, Vaisheshika, Vedanta, and Nyaya schools of Hinduism discuss Ishvara but assign different meanings.Template:Citation needed

Early Nyaya school scholars considered the hypothesis of a deity as a creator God with the power to grant blessings, boons, and fruits; but these early Nyaya scholars then rejected this hypothesis, and were non-theistic or atheists.<ref name="John Clayton 2010 page 150"/><ref>G Oberhammer (1965), Zum problem des Gottesbeweises in der indischen Philosophie, Numen, 12: 1-34</ref> Later scholars of Nyaya school reconsidered this question and offered counter arguments for what is Ishvara and various arguments to prove the existence of an omniscient, omnipresent, omnipotent deity (God).<ref name=fxc>Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 18-19, 35-39</ref>

Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, as founded by Kanada in the 1st millennium BCE, neither required nor relied on a creator deity.<ref name=klausk>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York, Template:ISBN, p. 337</ref><ref name=":1" /> Later Vaisheshika school adopted the concept of Ishvara, states Klaus Klostermaier, but as an eternal God who co-exists in the universe with eternal substances and atoms, but He "winds up the clock, and lets it run its course".<ref name=klausk/>

Ancient Mimamsa scholars of Hinduism questioned what is Ishvara (deity, God)?<ref name=fxc3>FX Clooney (1997), What's a god? The quest for the right understanding of devatā in Brāhmaṅical ritual theory (Mīmāṃsā), International Journal of Hindu Studies, August 1997, Volume 1, Issue 2, pp. 337-385</ref> They considered a deity concept unnecessary for a consistent philosophy and moksha (soteriology).<ref name=fxc3/><ref name=bilimoria>P. Bilimoria (2001), Hindu doubts about God: Towards Mimamsa Deconstruction, in Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Volume 4, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. 87-106</ref>

In the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, Isvara is neither a creator-God nor a savior-God.<ref>A Malinar (2014), Current Approaches: Articles on Key Themes, in The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury Academic, Template:ISBN, p. 79</ref> This is called one of the several major atheistic schools of Hinduism by some scholars.<ref name=lpfl/><ref>Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, Template:ISBN, p. 39</ref><ref>Richard Garbe (2013), Die Samkhya-Philosophie, Indische Philosophie Volume 11, Template:ISBN, pp. 25-27 (in German)</ref> Others, such as Jacobsen, state that Samkhya is more accurately described as non-theistic.<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 15-16</ref> Deity is considered an irrelevant concept, neither defined nor denied, in Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.<ref name=":2" />

In the Yoga school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" (Ishta Deva or Ishta Devata)<ref>Orlando Espín and James Nickoloff (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies, Liturgical Press, Template:ISBN, p. 651</ref> or "spiritual inspiration", but not a creator God.<ref name=ianw/><ref name=lpfl>Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory, and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 38-39</ref> Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses in the Yogasutras can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".<ref>Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, p. 86</ref>

The Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism asserted that there is no dualistic existence of a deity (or deities).<ref name=":2" /><ref>JN Mohanty (2001), Explorations in Philosophy, Vol 1 (Editor: Bina Gupta), Oxford University Press, pp. 107-108</ref> There is no otherness nor distinction between Jiva and Ishvara.<ref>Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pp. 101-109 (in German), also pp. 69-99</ref><ref name="William Indich 2000 page 5">William Indich (2000), Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, p. 5</ref> God (Ishvara, Brahman) is identical with the Atman (Self) within each human being in Advaita Vedanta school,<ref>William James (1985), The Varieties of Religious Experience, Harvard University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 404 with footnote 28</ref> and there is a monistic Universal Absolute Oneness that connects everyone and everything.<ref name=jkoller>John Koller (2012), Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. 99-107</ref><ref name="William Indich 2000 page 5"/><ref name=lance>Lance Nelson (1996), Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita, in Living Liberation in Hindu Thought (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 38-39, 59 (footnote 105)</ref>

In Dvaita sub-school of Vedanta Hinduism, Ishvara is defined as a creator God that is distinct from Jiva (individual Selfs in living beings).<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347"/> In this school, God creates individual Self (Atman), but the individual Self never was and never will become one with God; the best it can do is to experience bliss by getting infinitely close to God.<ref name=tompad>Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, Template:ISBN, pp. 155-157</ref>

Number of deities

{{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template other Yāska, the earliest known language scholar of India (c. 500 BCE), mentions that there are three deities (Devas) according to the Vedas, "Agni (fire), whose place is on the earth; Vayu (wind), whose place is the air; and Surya (sun), whose place is in the sky".<ref>WJ Wilkins (2003), Hindu Gods and Goddesses, Dover, Template:ISBN, pp. 9-10</ref> This principle of three worlds (or zones), and its multiples is found thereafter in many ancient texts. The Samhitas, which are the oldest layer of text in Vedas enumerate 33 devas,Template:Refn either 11 each for the three worlds, or as 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, 8 Vasus and 2 Ashvins in the Brahmanas layer of Vedic texts.<ref name="George Williams 2008 pages 90, 112">George Williams (2008), A Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 90, 112</ref><ref name=monier/>

The Rigveda states in hymn 1.139.11,

<poem> ये देवासो दिव्येकादश स्थ पृथिव्यामध्येकादश स्थ । अप्सुक्षितो महिनैकादश स्थ ते देवासो यज्ञमिमं जुषध्वम् ॥११॥<ref>ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १.१३९ Sanskrit, Wikisource</ref>

O ye eleven gods whose home is heaven, O ye eleven who make earth your dwelling, Ye who with might, eleven, live in waters, accept this sacrifice, O gods, with pleasure. – Translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith<ref>The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 139 Verse 11, Ralph T. H. Griffith, Wikisource</ref>

Gods who are eleven in heaven; who are eleven on earth; and who are eleven dwelling with glory in mid-air; may ye be pleased with this our sacrifice. – Translated by HH Wilson<ref>The Rig Veda Samhita Verse 11, HH Wilson (Translator), Royal Asiatic Society, WH Allen & Co, London</ref> </poem> {{#if:Rigveda 1.139.11|{{#if:|}}

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One or one-ness

Thirty-three koti (33 supreme) divinities are mentioned in other ancient texts, such as the Yajurveda. Most by far, are goddesses state Foulston and Abbott, suggesting "how important and popular goddesses are" in Hindu culture.<ref name="lynnfoulston">Template:Cite book</ref> Scholars state all deities are typically viewed in Hinduism as "emanations or manifestation of genderless principle called Brahman, representing the many facets of Ultimate Reality".<ref name="lynnfoulston" /><ref name="lawrence78" /><ref name="brodd43" /> In Hinduism, the concept is that "God, the universe, human beings and all else is essentially one thing" and there is a connected oneness where the same God resides within every human being as Atman, the eternal Self.<ref name="brodd43">Jeffrey Brodd (2003), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, Template:ISBN, p. 43</ref><ref>Christopher John Fuller (2004), The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 30-31, Quote: "Crucial in Hindu polytheism is the relationship between the deities and humanity. Unlike Jewish, Christian and Islamic monotheism, predicated on the otherness of God and either his total separation from man and his singular incarnation, Hinduism postulates no absolute distinction between deities and human beings. The idea that all deities are truly one is, moreover, easily extended to proclaim that all human beings are in reality also forms of one supreme deity - Brahman, the Absolute of philosophical Hinduism. In practice, this abstract monist doctrine rarely belongs to an ordinary Hindu's statements, but examples of permeability between the divine and human can be easily found in popular Hinduism in many unremarkable contexts".</ref>

Iconography and practices

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Template:Multiple image Template:Quote box Hinduism has an ancient and extensive iconography tradition, particularly in the form of Murti (Sanskrit: मूर्ति, IAST: Mūrti), or Vigraha or Pratima.<ref name="Pratima Hinduism"/> A Murti is itself not the god in Hinduism, but it is an image of god and represents emotional and religious value.<ref name=fowler41>Jeaneane D Fowler (1996), Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 41-45</ref> A literal translation of Murti as an idol is incorrect, states Jeaneane Fowler when the idol is understood as superstitious end in itself.<ref name=fowler41/> Just like the photograph of a person is not the real person, a Murti is an image in Hinduism but not the real thing, but in both cases, the image reminds of something of emotional and real value to the viewer.<ref name=fowler41/> When a person worships a Murti, it is assumed to be a manifestation of the essence or spirit of the deity, the worshipper's spiritual ideas and needs are meditated through it, yet the idea of ultimate reality or Brahman is not confined in it.<ref name=fowler41/>

A Murti of a Hindu deity is typically made by carving stone, woodworking, metal casting, or through pottery. Medieval era texts describing their proper proportions, positions and gestures include the Puranas, Agamas and Samhitas particularly the Shilpa Shastras.<ref name="klausklost264"/> The expressions in a Murti vary in diverse Hindu traditions, ranging from Ugra symbolism to express destruction, fear and violence (Durga, Parvati, Kali), as well as Saumya symbolism to express joy, knowledge, and harmony (Parvati, Saraswati, Lakshmi). Saumya images are most common in Hindu temples.<ref name=grao17>Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography Madras, Cornell University Archives, pp. 17-39</ref> Other Murti forms found in Hinduism include the Linga.<ref name=stella179>Stella Kramrisch (1994), The Presence of Siva, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 179-187</ref>

A Murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or Brahman to some Hindus.<ref name= klausklost264/> In the religious context, they are found in Hindu temples or homes, where they may be treated as a beloved guest and serve as a participant of Puja rituals in Hinduism.<ref name=willis96>Michael Willis (2009), The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 96-112, 123-143, 168-172</ref> A murti is installed by priests, in Hindu temples, through the Prana Pratishtha ceremony,<ref>Heather Elgood (2000), Hinduism and the Religious Arts, Bloomsbury Academic, Template:ISBN, pp. 14-15, 32-36</ref> whereby state Harold Coward and David Goa, the "divine vital energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture" and then the divine is welcomed as one would welcome a friend.<ref>Harold Coward and David Goa (2008), Mantra: 'Hearing the Divine In India and America, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 25-30</ref> In other occasions, it serves as the center of attention in annual festive processions and these are called Utsava Murti.<ref name=james726>James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, The Rosen Publishing Group, Template:ISBN, p. 726</ref>

Temple and worship

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In Hinduism, deities and their icons may be hosted in a Hindu temple, within a home, or as an amulet. The worship performed by Hindus is known by several regional names, such as Puja.<ref name=lochtefeldpuja/> This practice in front of a murti may be elaborate in large temples, or be a simple song or mantra muttered in home, or offering made to sunrise or river or symbolic an icon of a deity.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Paul Courtright (1985), in Gods of Flesh/Gods of Stone (Joanne Punzo Waghorne, Norman Cutler, and Vasudha Narayanan, eds), Template:ISBN, Columbia University Press, see Chapter 2</ref><ref name="Galepuja">Template:Cite book</ref> Archaeological evidence of deity worship in Hindu temples trace Puja rituals to Gupta Empire era (c. 4th century CE).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In Hindu temples, various pujas may be performed daily at various times of the day; in other temples, it may be occasional.<ref name=ebp>Puja, Encyclopædia Britannica (2011)</ref><ref name=hgb>Hiro G. Badlani (2008), Hinduism: A path of ancient wisdom, Template:ISBN, pp. 315-318</ref>

The Puja practice is structured as an act of welcoming, hosting, and honoring the deity of one's choice as one's honored guest,<ref>Paul Thieme (1984), "Indische Wörter und Sitten", in Kleine Schriften, Vol. 2, pp. 343–370</ref> and remembering the spiritual and emotional significance the deity represents to the devotee.<ref name=fowler41/><ref name=lochtefeldpuja>James Lochtefeld (2002), Puja in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 2, Rosen Publishing, Template:ISBN, pp. 529–530</ref> Jan Gonda, as well as Diana L. Eck, states that a typical Puja involves one or more of 16 steps (Shodasha Upachara) traceable to ancient times: the deity is invited as a guest, the devotee hosts and takes care of the deity as an honored guest, praise (hymns) with Dhupa or Aarti along with food (Naivedhya) is offered to the deity, after an expression of love and respect the host takes leave, and with affection expresses goodbye to the deity.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref name=dleck>Diana L. Eck (2008), Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 47-49</ref> The worship practice may also involve reflecting on spiritual questions, with image serving as support for such meditation.<ref>Diana L. Eck (2008), Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 45-46</ref>

Deity worship (Bhakti), visiting temples, and Puja rites are not mandatory and are optional in Hinduism; it is the choice of a Hindu, it may be a routine daily affair for some Hindus, periodic ritual or infrequent for some.<ref>Jonathan Lee and Kathleen Nadeau (2010), Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife, Volume 1, ABC, Template:ISBN, pp. 480-481</ref><ref>Jean Holm and John Bowker (1998), Worship, Bloomsbury Academic, Template:ISBN, p. 83, Quote: "Temples are the permanent residence of a deity and daily worship is performed by the priest, but the majority of Hindus visit temples only on special occasions. Worship in temples is wholly optional for them".</ref> Worship practices in Hinduism are as diverse as its traditions, and a Hindu can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic, or humanist.<ref name="juliuslipnerhindu82"/>

Devotees engage with deities in more personalized relationships. Ramanuja differentiates between three types of devotees: power-seekers, liberation-seekers, and those seeking love and communion with the deity. While all three are considered dharmic, they are not equally significant in terms of liberation. Power-seekers pursue goals for overall benefit, while liberation-seekers seek unity with the divine. The highest form of devotion is characterized by selfless love for the divine.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Examples

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File:Six Hinduism deities. Surya, Parvati, Hanuman, Lakshmi, Vishnu, and Indra. All of them came from India, except Vishnu (from the Thai-Cambodian border). Various eras. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh.jpg

Six Hinduism deities. Surya, Parvati, Hanuman, Lakshmi, Vishnu, and Indra. All of these statues came from India, except Vishnu (from the Thai-Cambodian border). Various eras. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh

Major deities have inspired a vast genre of literature such as the Puranas and Agama texts as well their own Hindu traditions, but with shared mythology, ritual grammar, theosophy, axiology and polycentrism.<ref name=juliuslipner371/><ref name=frazierintrop2/> Vishnu and his avatars are at the foundation of Vaishnavism, Shiva for Shaivism, Devi for Shaktism, and some Hindu traditions such as Smarta traditions who revere multiple major deities (five) as henotheistic manifestations of Brahman (absolute metaphysical Reality).<ref name=lawrence78>David Lawrence (2012), The Routledge Companion to Theism (Editors: Charles Taliaferro, Victoria S. Harrison and Stewart Goetz), Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. 78-79</ref><ref>Guy Beck (2005), Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity, SUNY Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 1-2</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

While there are diverse deities in Hinduism, states Lawrence, "Exclusivism – which maintains that only one's own deity is real" is rare in Hinduism.<ref name=lawrence78/> Julius Lipner, and other scholars, state that pluralism and "polycentrism" – where other deities are recognized and revered by members of different "denominations", has been the Hindu ethos and way of life.<ref name=juliuslipner371/><ref>Andrew J Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 167-168</ref>

Trimurti and Tridevi

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The concept of Triad (or Trimurti, Trinity) makes a relatively late appearance in Hindu literature, or in the second half of 1st millennium BCE.<ref name=jangondatrim>Jan Gonda (1969), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, 63/64, 1/2, pp. 212-226</ref> The idea of triad, playing three roles in the cosmic affairs, is typically associated with Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva (also called Mahesh); however, this is not the only triad in Hindu literature.<ref name=baileytrim>GM Bailey (1979), Trifunctional Elements in the Mythology of the Hindu Trimūrti, Numen, Vol. 26, Fasc. 2, pp. 152-163</ref> Other triads include Tridevi, of three goddesses – Lakshmi, Saraswati and Parvati in the text Devi Mahatmya, in the Shakta tradition, which further assert that Devi is the Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and it is her energy that empowers Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.<ref name=jangondatrim/> The other triads, formulated as deities in ancient Indian literature, include Sun (creator), Air (sustainer) and Fire (destroyer); Prana (creator), Food (sustainer) and Time (destroyer).<ref name=jangondatrim/> These triads, states Jan Gonda, are in some mythologies grouped together without forming a Trinity, and in other times represented as equal, a unity and manifestations of one Brahman.<ref name=jangondatrim/> In the Puranas, for example, this idea of threefold "hypostatization" is expressed as follows,

They [Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva] exist through each other, and uphold each other; they are parts of one another; they subsist through one another; they are not for a moment separated; they never abandon one another. {{#if:Vayu Purana|{{#if:|}}

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The triad appears in Maitrayaniya Upanishad, for the first time in recognized roles known ever since, where they are deployed to present the concept of three Guṇa – the innate nature, tendencies and inner forces found within every being and everything, whose balance transform and keeps changing the individual and the world.<ref name=baileytrim/><ref>James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, Template:ISBN, p. 265</ref> It is in the medieval Puranic texts, Trimurti concepts appears in various context, from rituals to spiritual concepts.<ref name=jangondatrim/> The Bhagavad Gita, in verses 9.18, 10.21-23 and 11.15, asserts that the triad or trinity is manifestation of one Brahman, which Krishna affirms himself to be.<ref>Rudolf V D'Souza (1996), The Bhagavadgītā and St. John of the Cross, Gregorian University, Template:ISBN, pp. 340-342</ref> However, suggests Bailey, the mythology of triad is "not the influence nor the most important one" in Hindu traditions, rather the ideologies and spiritual concepts develop on their own foundations.<ref name=baileytrim/> The triad, with Brahma creating, Vishnu preserving and Shiva destroying, balances the functioning of the whole universe.

Avatars of Hindu deities

File:Avatars.jpg

The ten avatars of Vishnu, (Clockwise, from top left) Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Vamana, Krishna, Kalki, Buddha, Parshurama, Rama and Narasimha, (in centre) Radha and Krishna. Painting currently in Victoria and Albert Museum.

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Hindu mythology has nurtured the concept of the avatar (avatāra), which represents the descent of a deity on earth.<ref name=jameslochtefeld72>James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, The Rosen Publishing Group, Template:ISBN, pp. 72-73</ref><ref name="Sheth98">Template:Cite journal</ref> This concept is commonly translated as "incarnation",<ref name=jameslochtefeld72/> and is an "appearance" or "manifestation".<ref name="Matchett">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Christopher Hugh Partridge, Introduction to World Religions, pg. 148</ref>

The concept of the avatar is most developed in Vaishnavism tradition, and associated with Vishnu, particularly with Rama and Krishna.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Bryant18">Template:Cite book</ref> Vishnu takes numerous avatars in Hindu mythology. He becomes female, during the Samudra Manthana, in the form of Mohini, to resolve a conflict between the devas and the asuras. His male avatars include Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki.<ref name="Bryant18"/> In some lists, Balarama replaces the Buddha.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Various texts, particularly the Bhagavad Gita, discuss the idea of an avatar of Vishnu appearing to restore the cosmic balance whenever the power of evil becomes excessive and causes persistent oppression in the world.<ref name="Sheth98"/>

In Shaktism traditions, the concept appears in its legends as the various manifestations of Devi, the divine-mother principle in Hinduism.<ref name="Hawley">Template:Cite book</ref> The avatars of Devi or Parvati include Durga and Kali, who are particularly revered in the eastern states of India, as well as Tantra traditions.<ref>David Kinsley (1988), Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 45-48, 96-97</ref><ref>Sally Kempton (2013), Awakening Shakti: The Transformative Power of the Goddesses of Yoga, Template:ISBN, pp. 165-167</ref><ref name=jansen134>Eva Rudy Jansen, The Book of Hindu Imagery: Gods, Manifestations and Their Meaning, Holland: Binkey Kok, Template:ISBN, pp. 133-134, 41</ref> Twenty-one avatars of Shiva are also described in Shaivism texts, but unlike Vaishnava traditions, Shaiva traditions focus directly on Shiva rather than the avatar concept.<ref name=jameslochtefeld72/>

Major regional and pan-Indian Hindu deities

Name	Other Names	Avatārs or Associated Deities	Geography	Image	Early illustrative art
Vishnu	Nārāyana, Venkateshwara, Jagannatha, Dattatreya, Hari, Other names of Rama and Krishna	Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Kalki, Vithoba, Perumal, Balarama, Mohini, Buddha, Hayagriva	India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Indonesia	File:Vishnu from Gita Govinda.jpg	File:KINGS of BAKTRIA. Agathokles. Circa 185-170 BC. AR Drachm (3.22 gm, 12h). Bilingual series. BASILEWS AGAQOKLEOUS with Indian god Balarama-Samkarshana.jpg 2nd century BCE
Shiva	Mahādeva, Pashupati, Tripurantaka, Vishvanatha, Dakshinamurti, Nilakantha, Kālāntaka, Rudra, Nataraja, Sadashiva, Dattatreya	Bhairava, Veerabhadra Batara Guru (Indonesia)<ref>Hariani Santiko (1997), The Goddess Durgā in the East-Javanese Period, Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 209-226</ref><ref name=ghose15>R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 15-17</ref> Achalanatha (Japan)<ref>Jiro Takei and Marc P Keane (2001), SAKUTEIKI, Tuttle, Template:ISBN, p. 101</ref><ref>Miyeko Murase (1975), Japanese Art: Selections from the Mary and Jackson Burke Collection, The Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York), Template:ISBN, p. 31</ref>	India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, China	File:Shiva Kanachur MP.JPG	File:Shiva temple with trident standard Audumbara State Punjab 1st century BCE.jpg 1st century BCE<ref>M Chakravarti (1995), The concept of Rudra-Śiva through the ages, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 148-149</ref>
Brahmā	Adi Prajāpati, Virinci, Vaidyanatha, Vacpati, Varishtadeva, Kamalaja, Srashta, Karta, Dhata	Bonten (Japan),<ref>Robert Paine and Alexander Soper (1992), The Art and Architecture of Japan, Yale University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 60</ref> Phra Phrom (Thailand)	India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia	File:Thai - Seated Brahma - Walters 542555.jpg	File:Shiva Linga Delhi National Museum 01-13.jpg 6th century CE
Ganesha	Ganapati, Vināyaka, Lambodara, Gajānana	Kangiten (Japan)	India, Nepal, Sri Lanka	File:Balinese Hindu Puja Offerings, Ubud Bali Indonesia 2010.jpg	File:Ganesha, Lord of Obstacles LACMA M.84.67.jpg 7th century CE
Kārtikeya	Skanda, Murugan, Mangala, Kumara, Subrahmanya, Shanmukha		India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Nepal	File:Balaskandha.jpg	File:Skanda, from Kannuaj.jpg 2nd century BCE
Pārvati	Uma, Devi, Gauri, Durga, Kāli, Annapurna	Umahi (烏摩妃, Japan)<ref>Joe Cribb (1999), Magic Coins of Java, Bali and the Malay Peninsula, British Museum Press, Template:ISBN, p. 77</ref>	India, Nepal, Sri Lanka	File:Lalita statue.jpg	File:Calcutta ei05-72.jpg 5th century CE
Lakshmi	Sridevi, Bhargavi, Kamalāsanā, Padmavati, Chanchala	Sita, Radha, Rukmini, Kisshōten (Japan) Dewi Sri (Indonesia) Nang Kwak (Thailand)<ref>Jonathan Lee, Fumitaka Matsuoka et al. (2015), Asian American Religious Cultures, ABC, Template:ISBN, p. 892</ref>	India, Nepal, Sri Lanka	File:Gajalakshmi.jpeg	File:Coin of Azilises showing Gaja Lakshmi standing on a lotus 1st century BCE.jpg 1st century BCE
Saraswati	Vāgishvari, Vīnāpāni, Sharada	Benzaiten (Japan), Biàncáitiān (China), Thurathadi (Myanmar), Suratsawadi (Thailand)<ref name="dk95">Kinsley, David (1988), Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 94-97</ref>	India, Nepal, Java, Bali, Sri Lanka	File:A Saraswati Statue in park.jpg	File:Indian - Sarasvati - Walters 2550.jpg 10th century CE
Durgā	Pārvati, Kāli, Mahishāsuramardini	Betari Durga (Indonesia)<ref>Francine Brinkgreve (1997), Offerings to Durga and Pretiwi in Bali, Asian Folklore Studies Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 227-251</ref>	India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh	File:Durga at Rewalsar Lake. 2010.jpg	File:Aihole si05-1471.jpg 8th century CE
Kāli	Durga, Parvati		India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh	File:Kaliposter1940s.jpg	File:Goddess Kali.jpg 12th century CE
Mariamman	Durga, Parvati		India (mostly in South India), Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka	File:Mariamman.jpg	File:Tamil nadu, epoca cola, tridente con mariyammai, dea del vaiolo, x sec..JPG 10th century CE
Harihara (Half Vishnu - Half Shiva)	Shankaranarayana		India, Sri Lanka, Nepal	File:Indian god-sivakesava.JPG	File:Harihara. Cave3Badami.jpg 6th century CE
Ardhanārīshvara (Half Shiva - Half Parvati)			India, Nepal, Sri Lanka	File:God marriage AS.jpg	File:Kushana Ardhanareswar.jpg 1st century CE
Hanuman	Ramdhooth, Anjaneya, Maruti, Bajarangabali, Sankatamochana, Pavanasuta		India, Nepal, Sri Lanka	File:Ravivarmapress.jpg	File:StandingHanumanCholaDynasty11thCentury.jpg 11th century CE

See also

• Hindu denominations
• Hindu iconography
• Hindu mythology
• Puranas
• List of Hindu deities
• Rigvedic deities

References

Sources

• Daniélou, Alain (1991) [1964]. The Myths and Gods of India. Inner Traditions, Vermont, US. Template:ISBN.
• Fuller, C. J. (2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton University Press, New Jersey. Template:ISBN.
• Harman, William, "Hindu Devotion". In: Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice, Robin Rinehard, ed. (2004) Template:ISBN.
• Kashyap, R. L. Essentials of Krishna and Shukla Yajurveda; SAKSI, Bangalore, Karnataka Template:ISBN.
• Pattanaik, Devdutt (2009). 7 Secrets from Hindu Calendar Art. Westland, India. Template:ISBN.
• Template:Citation
• Template:Citation
• Template:Citation
• Template:Citation
• Template:Cite journal
• Swami Bhaskarananda, (1994). Essentials of Hinduism. (Viveka Press) Template:ISBN.
• Vastu-Silpa Kosha, Encyclopedia of Hindu Temple architecture and Vastu. S. K. Ramachandara Rao, Delhi, Devine Books, (Lala Murari Lal Chharia Oriental series) Template:ISBN (Set)
• Werner, Karel. A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism. Curzon Press, 1994. Template:ISBN.

Further reading

• Chandra, Suresh (1998). Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Sarup & Sons, New Delhi, India. Template:ISBN.
• Pattanaik, Devdutt (2003). Indian mythology: tales, symbols, and rituals from the heart of the Subcontinent. Inner Traditions / Bear & Company. Template:ISBN.
• Kinsley, David. Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions. Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, India. Template:ISBN.

External links

• A chart of the main Hindu deities (with pictures)
• Collection: "Hindu Gods and Goddesses" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art
• "Deities in Stone: Hindu Sculpture from the Collections of the Asian Art Museum" exhibition at the SFO Museum
• "Seeing the Divine in Hindu Art" exhibition at the Museum of Art and Archaeology at the University of Missouri

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