Kunrei-shiki romanization

Template:Nihongo, also known as the Monbusho system (named after the endonym for the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology) or MEXT system,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> is the Cabinet-ordered romanization system for transcribing the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. Its name is rendered Kunreisiki rômazi in the system itself. It is taught in the Monbushō-approved elementary school curriculum. The ISO has standardized Kunrei-shiki under ISO 3602.

Kunrei-shiki is based on the older Nihon-shiki romanization, which was modified for modern standard Japanese. For example, the word かなづかい, romanized kanadukai in Nihon-shiki, is pronounced kanazukai in modern standard Japanese and is romanized as such in Kunrei-shiki. The system competes with the older Hepburn romanization system, which was promoted by the SCAP during the Allied occupation of Japan after World War II.

History

In 1930, the Ministry of Education appointed a board of inquiry to determine the proper romanization system of the Japanese language. This resulted in a cabinet order (訓令 kunrei) issued on 21 September 1937<ref name=Horvatp166>Template:Cite book</ref> that a modified form of the Nihon-shiki system would be officially adopted as Kunrei-shiki.<ref name=Kent155>Template:Cite book</ref> The form at the time differs slightly from the modern form.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Originally, the system was called the Kokutei (国定, government-authorized) system.<ref name=Kent155 />

The Japanese government gradually introduced Kunrei-shiki; which appeared in secondary education, on railway station signboards, on nautical charts, and on the 1:1,000,000 scale International Map of the World;<ref name=UNRomanizationp3>"Romanization in Japan." (Archive) (Paper presented by Japan) United Nations Economic and Social Council. 8 July 1977. p. 3. English only. Retrieved on 15 May 2013.</ref> as well as literature and educational material for tourists.<ref name=Horvat>Horvat, Andrew. "The Romaji (Roomaji) Conundrum." (Archive) – Excerpt from Horvat's book: Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker. Hosted at the David See-Chai Lam Centre for International Communication of Simon Fraser University. Retrieved on 13 May 2013.</ref> Nevertheless, unofficial use of Nihon-shiki and Modified Hepburn continued concurrently because of support from individuals.<ref name=UNRomanizationp3 />

After Japan's defeat in the Pacific War in 1945, General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), issued a directive, dated 3 September 1945, that stated that Modified Hepburn was the method to transcribe Japanese names. Some editorials printed in Japanese newspapers advocated for using only Hepburn.<ref name=Unger78>Template:Cite book</ref> Kunrei-shiki had developed associations with Japanese militarism, and the US occupation was reluctant to promote it.<ref name=Horvat /> Supporters of Hepburn denounced pro-Kunrei-shiki and pro-Nihon-shiki advocates to the SCAP offices<ref name=Unger54 /> by accusing them of being inactive militarists<ref name=Unger78 /> and of collaborating with militarists. Unger said that the nature of Kunrei-shiki led to "pent-up anger" by Hepburn supporters.<ref name=Unger54 /> During the postwar period, several educators and scholars tried to introduce romanized letters as a teaching device and a possible later replacement for kanji. On 9 December 1954, the Japanese government re-confirmed Kunrei-shiki as its official system<ref name=Kent155 /> but with slight modifications.<ref name=Gottlieb78>Gottlieb, p. 78.</ref> Eleanor Jorden, an American linguist, made textbooks with a modified version of Kunrei-shiki, which were used in the 1960s in courses given to US diplomats. The use of her books did not change the US government's hesitation to use Kunrei-shiki.<ref name=Horvat />

As of 1974, according to the Geographical Survey Institute (now the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan), Kunrei-shiki was used for topographical maps, and Modified Hepburn was used for geological maps and aeronautical charts.<ref name=GSIp22>Template:Cite book</ref>

As of 1978, the National Diet Library used Kunrei-shiki. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, and many other official organizations instead used Hepburn, as did The Japan Times, the JTB Corporation, and many other private organisations.<ref name=Kent155 />

Despite the official status of Kunrei-shiki and its use in Japanese elementary schools, Hepburn romanization remained the primary romanization system used in Japanese government and by other groups in Japan.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Legal status

The system was originally promulgated as Japanese Cabinet Order No. 3 as of 21 September 1937. Since it had been overturned by the SCAP during the occupation of Japan, the Japanese government repealed it and decreed again, as Japanese Cabinet Order No.1 as of 29 December 1954. It mandated the use of Kunrei-shiki in "the written expression of Japanese generally". Specific alternative spellings could be used in international relations and to follow established precedent. See Permitted Exceptions for details.[1]

Kunrei-shiki has been recognised, along with Nihon-shiki, in ISO 3602:1989. Documentation—Romanisation of Japanese (kana script) by the ISO. It was also recommended by the ANSI after it withdrew its own standard, ANSI Z39.11-1972 American National Standard System for the Romanization of Japanese (Modified Hepburn), in 1994.

In January 2024, the Cultural Affairs Agency proposed revising the 1954 Cabinet Order to make Hepburn the standard romanization system of Japan.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Usage

Example: tat-u

Conjugation	Kunrei	Hepburn
Mizen 1	tat-a-	tat-a-
Mizen 2	tat-o-	tat-o-
Ren'yô	tat-i	tach-i
Syûsi/Rentai	tat-u	tats-u
Katei	tat-e-	tat-e-
Meirei	tat-e	tat-e

Despite its official recognition, the Japanese commonly choose between the Nihon-shiki/Kunrei-shiki and Hepburn systems for any given situation. However, the Japanese government generally uses Hepburn, especially for passports,<ref name="kictec.co.jp">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> road signage,<ref name="kictec.co.jp" /> and train signage.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Most Western publications, as well, and all English-language newspapers use some form of Hepburn.<ref>Powers, John. "Japanese Names", The Indexer Vol. 26 No. 2 June 2008. doi:10.3828/indexer.2008.29. "It [Hepburn] can be considered the norm as, in slightly modified form, it is followed by the great majority of Western publications and by all English-language newspapers."</ref>

J. Marshall Unger, the author of Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading between the Lines, said that the Hepburn supporters "understandably" believed that the Kunrei-shiki "compromise" was not fair because of the presence of the "un-English-looking spellings" that the Modified Hepburn supporters had opposed.<ref name=Unger54>Template:Cite book</ref> Andrew Horvat, the author of Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker, argued that "by forcing non-native speakers of Japanese with no intentions of learning the language to abide by a system intended for those who have some command of Japanese, the government gave the impression of intolerant language management that would have dire consequences later on."<ref name=Horvat /> Because Kunrei-shiki is based on Japanese phonology rather than the actual phonetic realization, it can cause non-native speakers to pronounce words incorrectly. John Hinds, the author of Japanese: Descriptive Grammar, describes that as "a major disadvantage."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Page needed

Additional complications appear with newer kana combinations such as ティーム (チーム) team. In Hepburn, they would be distinguished as different sounds and represented as tīmu and chīmu respectively. That gives better indications of the English pronunciations. For some Japanese-speakers, however, the sounds ティ "ti" and チ "chi" are the same phoneme; both are represented in Kunrei-shiki as tîmu. Such complications may be confusing to those who do not know Japanese phonology well. Use of an apostrophe (t'îmu), sometimes seen in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, may be a possible solution.

Today, the main users of Kunrei-shiki are native speakers of Japanese, especially within Japan, and linguists studying Japanese. The main advantage of Kunrei-shiki is that it is better able to illustrate Japanese grammar, as Hepburn gives the impression of certain conjugations being irregular (see table, right).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Page needed The most serious problem of Hepburn in this context is that it may change the stem of a verb, which is not reflected in the underlying morphology of the language. One notable introductory textbook for English-speakers, Eleanor Jorden's Japanese: The Spoken Language, uses her JSL romanization, a system strongly influenced by Kunrei-shiki in its adherence to Japanese phonology, but it is adapted to teaching proper pronunciation of Japanese phonemes.

Kunrei-shiki spellings of kana

gojūon					yōon
あ ア a	い イ i	う ウ u	え エ e	お オ o	(ya)	(yu)	(yo)
か カ ka	き キ ki	く ク ku	け ケ ke	こ コ ko	きゃ キャ kya	きゅ キュ kyu	きょ キョ kyo
さ サ sa	し シ si	す ス su	せ セ se	そ ソ so	しゃ シャ sya	しゅ シュ syu	しょ ショ syo
た タ ta	ち チ ti	つ ツ tu	て テ te	と ト to	ちゃ チャ tya	ちゅ チュ tyu	ちょ チョ tyo
な ナ na	に ニ ni	ぬ ヌ nu	ね ネ ne	の ノ no	にゃ ニャ nya	にゅ ニュ nyu	にょ ニョ nyo
は ハ ha	ひ ヒ hi	ふ フ hu	へ ヘ he	ほ ホ ho	ひゃ ヒャ hya	ひゅ ヒュ hyu	ひょ ヒョ hyo
ま マ ma	み ミ mi	む ム mu	め メ me	も モ mo	みゃ ミャ mya	みゅ ミュ myu	みょ ミョ myo
や ヤ ya	(i)	ゆ ユ yu	(e)	よ ヨ yo
ら ラ ra	り リ ri	る ル ru	れ レ re	ろ ロ ro	りゃ リャ rya	りゅ リュ ryu	りょ リョ ryo
わ ワ wa	ゐ ヰ i	(u)	ゑ ヱ e	を ヲ o
				ん ン n
voiced sounds (dakuten)
が ガ ga	ぎ ギ gi	ぐ グ gu	げ ゲ ge	ご ゴ go	ぎゃ ギャ gya	ぎゅ ギュ gyu	ぎょ ギョ gyo
ざ ザ za	じ ジ zi	ず ズ zu	ぜ ゼ ze	ぞ ゾ zo	じゃ ジャ zya	じゅ ジュ zyu	じょ ジョ zyo
だ ダ da	ぢ ヂ zi	づ ヅ zu	で デ de	ど ド do	ぢゃ ヂャ zya	ぢゅ ヂュ zyu	ぢょ ヂョ zyo
ば バ ba	び ビ bi	ぶ ブ bu	べ ベ be	ぼ ボ bo	びゃ ビャ bya	びゅ ビュ byu	びょ ビョ byo
ぱ パ pa	ぴ ピ pi	ぷ プ pu	ぺ ペ pe	ぽ ポ po	ぴゃ ピャ pya	ぴゅ ピュ pyu	ぴょ ピョ pyo

Notes

• Characters in red are obsolete in modern Japanese.
• When he (へ) is used as a particle, it is written as e, not he (as in Nihon-shiki).
• When ha (は) is used as a particle, it is written as wa, not ha.
• wo (を/ヲ) is used only as a particle, written o.
• Long vowels are indicated by a circumflex accent: long o is written ô.
• Vowels that are separated by a morpheme boundary are not considered to be a long vowel. For example, おもう (思う) is written omou, not omô.
• Syllabic n (ん) is written as n' before vowels and y but as n before consonants and at the end of a word.
• Geminate consonants are always marked by doubling the consonant following the sokuon (っ).
• The first letter in a sentence and all proper nouns are capitalized.
• ISO 3602 has the strict form; see Nihon-shiki.

Permitted exceptions

The Cabinet Order makes an exception to the above chart:

• In international relations and situations for which prior precedent would make a sudden reform difficult, the spelling given by Chart 2 may also be used:

しゃ sha	し shi	しゅ shu	しょ sho
		つ tsu
ちゃ cha	ち chi	ちゅ chu	ちょ cho
		ふ fu
じゃ ja	じ ji	じゅ ju	じょ jo
	ぢ di	づ du
ぢゃ dya		ぢゅ dyu	ぢょ dyo
くゎ kwa
ぐゎ gwa
			を wo

The exceptional clause is not to be confused with other systems of romanization (such as Hepburn) and does not specifically relax other requirements, such as marking long vowels.

See also

• List of ISO transliterations

Sources

• Geographical Survey Institute (Kokudo Chiriin). Bulletin of the Geographical Survey Institute, Volumes 20-23. 1974.
• Gottlieb, Nanette. "The Rōmaji movement in Japan." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Third Series). January 2010. Volume 20, Issue 1. p. 75-88. Published online on November 30, 2009. Available at Cambridge Journals. DOI doi:10.1017/S1356186309990320.
• Hadamitzky, Wolfgang. Kanji & Kana Revised Edition (漢字・かな). Tuttle Publishing, 1997. Template:ISBN, 9780804820776.
• Horvat, Andrew. Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker. Stone Bridge Press, 2000. Template:ISBN, 9781880656426.
• Hinds, John. Japanese: Descriptive Grammar. Taylor & Francis Group, 1986. Template:ISBN, 9780415010337.
• Kent, Allen, Harold Lancour, and Jay Elwood Daily (Executive Editors). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science Volume 21. CRC Press, April 1, 1978. Template:ISBN, 9780824720216.
• Unger, J. Marshall. Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan : Reading between the Lines: Reading between the Lines. Oxford University Press. July 8, 1996. Template:ISBN, 9780195356380.
• {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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Further reading

• Template:Cite news - Japanese version on Archive.today

External links

• Horvat, Andrew. "The Romaji (Roomaji) Conundrum." (Archive) – Excerpt from Horvat's book: Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker. Hosted at the David See-Chai Lam Centre for International Communication of Simon Fraser University.

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