Icterid

Icterids (Template:IPAc-en) or New World blackbirds make up a family, the Icteridae (Template:IPAc-en), of small to medium-sized, often colorful, New World passerine birds. The family contains 108 species and is divided into 30 genera. Most species have black as a predominant plumage color, often enlivened by yellow, orange, or red. The species in the family vary widely in size, shape, behavior, and coloration.

Etymology

The name, meaning "jaundiced ones" (from the prominent yellow feathers of many species) comes from the Template:Langx - íkteros via the Template:Langx.

Relationship to other species

This group includes the New World blackbirds, New World orioles, the bobolink, meadowlarks, grackles, cowbirds, oropendolas, and caciques. Despite the similar names, the first groups are only distantly related to the Old World common blackbird (a thrush) or to the Old World orioles. The Icteridae are not to be confused with the Icteriidae, a family created in 2017 and consisting of one species — the yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Characteristics

Most icterid species live in the tropics, although many species also occur in temperate regions, such as the red-winged blackbird and the long-tailed meadowlark. The highest densities of breeding species are found in Colombia and southern Mexico.<ref>Lowther P (1975) "Geographic and Ecological Variation in the Family Icteridae" Wilson Bulletin 87 (4): 481-495</ref> They inhabit a range of habitats, including scrub, swamp, forest, and savanna.<ref name=EoB/> Temperate species are migratory, with many species that nest in the United States and Canada moving south into Mexico and Central America.

File:Euphagus cyanocephalus male gaping.jpg

Breeding male Brewer's blackbird apparently gaping (see text) in soil

Icterids are variable in size, and often display considerable sexual dimorphism, with brighter coloration and greater size in males being typical. While such dimorphism is widely known in passerines, the sexual dimorphism by size is uniquely extreme in icterids. For example, the male great-tailed grackle is 60% heavier than the female. The smallest icterid species is the orchard oriole, in which the female averages 15 cm in length (6 in) and Template:Convert in weight, while the largest is the Amazonian oropendola, the male of which measures Template:Convert and weighs about Template:Convert. This variation is greater than in any other passerine family (unless the kinglet calyptura belongs with the cotingas, which would then have greater variation<ref>Template:Citation</ref>). One unusual morphological adaptation shared by the icterids is gaping, where the skull is configured to allow them to open their bills strongly rather than passively, allowing them to force open gaps to obtain otherwise hidden food. Most icterids have rounded tails and lack rictal bristles. They have nine primary feathers<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and are placed among the nine-primaried oscines.

Icterids have adapted to taking a wide range of foods. Oropendolas and caciques use their gaping motion to open the skins of fruit to obtain the soft insides, and have long bills adapted to the process. Others such as cowbirds and the bobolink have shorter, stubbier bills for crushing seeds. The Jamaican blackbird uses its bill to pry amongst tree bark and epiphytes, and has adopted the evolutionary niche filled elsewhere in the Neotropics by woodcreepers. Orioles drink nectar.

The nesting habits of these birds are also variable, including pendulous woven nests in the oropendolas and orioles. Many icterids are colonial, nesting in colonies of up to 100,000 birds. Some cowbird species engage in brood parasitism; females lay their eggs in the nests of other species, in a similar fashion to some cuckoos.<ref name=EoB>Template:Citation</ref>

Some species of icterid have become agricultural pests; for example, red-winged blackbirds in the United States are considered the worst vertebrate pests on some crops, such as rice.<ref>Dolbeer, R & S Ickes (1994) "Red-winged Blackbird feeding preferences and response to wild rice treated with Portland cement or plaster" Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings collection Proceedings of the Sixteenth Vertebrate Pest Conference (1994) (W.S. Halverson& A.C. Crabb, Eds.) Univ. of Calif.:Davis.</ref> The cost of controlling blackbirds in California was $30 per acre in 1994. Not all species have been as successful, and a number of species are threatened with extinction. These include insular forms such as the Jamaican blackbird, yellow-shouldered blackbird, and St Lucia oriole, all threatened by habitat loss; and the tricolored blackbird of California, which is threatened by habitat loss and destruction of nests.

Folklore

Cacique and oropendola species are called paucar or similar names in Peru.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Citation. Click the link to Fauna and scroll forward one page.</ref> As paucares are considered very intelligent, Native Americans feed the brains to their children to make them fast learners.<ref>Template:Citation. The source given is Moyobamba, apuntes turísticos y geográficos by Pedro Vargas Roja.</ref> As the male plays no part in nesting and care of the young, a man who does not work may be called a "male paucar".<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Taxonomy

The family group was introduced in 1825 as a subfamily Icterina by Irish zoologist Nicholas Vigors. He placed the subfamily in the starling family Sturnidae.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

A phylogenetic analysis of the passerine families by Carl Oliveros and collaborators published in 2019 found that the family Icteridae was sister to the family Icteriidae (containing the yellow breasted chat) and together these two families formed a clade that was sister to the New World warbler family Parulidae.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:Clade

The genus level cladogram shown below is based on a molecular phylogenetic study by Alexis Powell and collaborators that was published in 2014. The study compared mitochondrial gene sequences.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The subfamilies are those that were proposed in 2016 by Van Remsen and collaborators.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The numbers of species are taken from the list maintained by Frank Gill, Pamela Rasmussen and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee (IOC).<ref name=ioc>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Template:Clade

Genera

Image	Genus	Living Species
File:Yellow-Headed Blackbird "Posing" for the Camera (22727158809).jpg	Xanthocephalus Template:Small	Yellow-headed blackbird, Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus
File:Bobolink at Lake Woodruff (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) - Flickr - Andrea Westmoreland.jpg	Dolichonyx Template:Small	Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus
File:Sturnella magna -Mexico-8.jpg	Sturnella Template:Small	Western meadowlark, Sturnella neglecta Eastern meadowlark, Sturnella magna Lilian's meadowlark, Sturnella lilianae
File:Sturnella superciliaris -Vale do Ribeira, Registro, Sao Paulo, Brazil -8.jpg	Leistes Template:Small	Red-breasted meadowlark, Leistes militaris White-browed meadowlark, Leistes superciliaris Peruvian meadowlark, Leistes bellicosus Long-tailed meadowlark, Leistes loyca Pampas meadowlark, Leistes defilippii
File:Amblycercus holosericeus.jpg	Amblycercus Template:Small	Yellow-billed cacique, Amblycercus holosericeus
File:Mexican Cacique (Cacicus melanicterus) (8079400090).jpg	Cassiculus Template:Small	Mexican cacique or yellow-winged cacique, Cassiculus melanicterus
File:Montezuma Oropendola (16426688906).jpg	Psarocolius Template:Small	Chestnut-headed oropendola, Psarocolius wagleri Russet-backed oropendola, Psarocolius angustifrons Dusky-green oropendola, Psarocolius atrovirens Crested oropendola, Psarocolius decumanus Green oropendola, Psarocolius viridis Olive oropendola, Psarocolius bifasciatus Montezuma oropendola, Psarocolius montezuma Black oropendola, Psarocolius guatimozinus Baudo oropendola, Psarocolius cassini
File:Yellow-rumped cacique 10.jpg	Cacicus Template:Small	Solitary cacique, Cacicus solitarius Golden-winged cacique, Cacicus chrysopterus Selva cacique, Cacicus koepckeae Ecuadorian cacique, Cacicus sclateri Yellow-rumped cacique, Cacicus cela Scarlet-rumped cacique, Cacicus microrhynchus Subtropical cacique, Cacicus uropygialis Mountain cacique, Cacicus chrysonotus Band-tailed oropendola, Cacicus latirostris Casqued oropendola, Cacicus oseryi Red-rumped cacique, Cacicus haemorrhous
File:Icterus pustulatus 1.jpg	Icterus Template:Small	32 species
File:Nesopsar nigerrimus.jpg	Nesopsar Template:Small	Jamaican blackbird, Nesopsar nigerrimus
File:Blackbird tricolored male summer california monte-m-taylor.jpg	Agelaius Template:Small	Yellow-shouldered blackbird, Agelaius xanthomus Tawny-shouldered blackbird, Agelaius humeralis Tricolored blackbird, Agelaius tricolor Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus Red-shouldered blackbird, Agelaius assimilis
File:Molothrus ater 2.jpg	Molothrus Template:Small	Screaming cowbird, Molothrus rufoaxillaris Giant cowbird, Molothrus oryzivorus Shiny cowbird, Molothrus bonariensis Bronzed cowbird, Molothrus aeneus Bronze-brown cowbird, Molothrus armenti Brown-headed cowbird, Molothrus ater
File:Tordo Cantor - panoramio.jpg	Dives Template:Small	Scrub blackbird, Dives warczewiczi Melodious blackbird, Dives dives
File:Cuban Blackbirds. Dives atroviolacea - Flickr - gailhampshire.jpg	Ptiloxena Chapman, 1892	Cuban blackbird, Ptiloxena atroviolacea
File:Euphagus cyanocephalus -California -USA-6a.jpg	Euphagus Template:Small	Rusty blackbird, Euphagus carolinus Brewer's blackbird, Euphagus cyanocephalus
File:Quiscalus major -Three Lakes Wildlife Management Area, Florida, USA -male-8.jpg	Quiscalus Template:Small	Common grackle, Quiscalus quiscula Nicaraguan grackle, Quiscalus nicaraguensis Carib grackle, Quiscalus lugubris Greater Antillean grackle, Quiscalus niger Boat-tailed grackle, Quiscalus major Great-tailed grackle, Quiscalus mexicanus † Slender-billed grackle, Quiscalus palustris
File:Red-bellied Grackle - Medellin - Colombia S4E5638 (23889365655).jpg	Hypopyrrhus Template:Small	Red-bellied grackle, Hypopyrrhus pyrohypogaster
	Lampropsar Template:Small	Velvet-fronted grackle, Lampropsar tanagrinus
File:Gymnomystax mexicanus - Tordo maicero - Venezuela.jpg	Gymnomystax Template:Small	Oriole blackbird, Gymnomystax mexicanus
File:Columbian Mountain Grackle (Macroagelaius subalaris) (8079736640).jpg	Macroagelaius Template:Small	Colombian mountain grackle, Macroagelaius subalaris Golden-tufted mountain grackle, Macroagelaius imthurni
File:Curaeus curaeus - Flickr - Dick Culbert.jpg	Curaeus Template:Small	Austral blackbird, Curaeus curaeus
File:Scarlet-headed Blackbird - Pantanal - Brazil MG 9585 (23262522193).jpg	Amblyramphus Template:Small	Scarlet-headed blackbird, Amblyramphus holosericeus
File:Anumara forbesi - Forbes's Blackbird; Tamandaré, Pernambuco, Brazil.jpg	Anumara Template:Small	Forbes's Blackbird, Anumara forbesi
File:Chopi Blackbird.jpg	Gnorimopsar Template:Small	Chopi blackbird, Gnorimopsar chopi
	Oreopsar Template:Small	Bolivian blackbird, Oreopsar bolivianus
File:Grayish baywing.jpg	Agelaioides Template:Small	Grayish baywing, Agelaioides badius Pale baywing, Agelaioides fringillarius
File:Yellow-winged Blackbird.jpg	Agelasticus Template:Small	Yellow-winged blackbird, Agelasticus thilius Pale-eyed blackbird, Agelasticus xanthophthalmus Unicolored blackbird, Agelasticus cyanopus
File:Chrysomus icterocephalus (Monjita pantanera) (8) (14420579547).jpg	Chrysomus Template:Small	Chestnut-capped blackbird, Chrysomus ruficapillus Yellow-hooded blackbird, Chrysomus icterocephalus
File:DRAGON Xanthopsar flavus Dario Niz.jpg	Xanthopsar Template:Small	Saffron-cowled blackbird, Xanthopsar flavus
File:CHOPIM-DO-BREJO (Pseudoleistes guirahuro)2.jpg	Pseudoleistes Template:Small	Brown-and-yellow marshbird, Pseudoleistes virescens Yellow-rumped marshbird, Pseudoleistes guirahuro

Prehistoric icterid genera that have been described from Pleistocene fossil remains are Pandanaris from Rancho La Brea and Pyelorhamphus from Shelter Cave.

External links

• New World Blackbirds (Icteridae) - videos, photos and sounds at the Internet Bird Collection
• Icteridae - Tree of Life Web Project