Template:Short description Template:About Template:Pp Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox royalty Template:Ali
Ali ibn Abi Talib (Template:Langx; Template:Circa) was the fourth Rashidun caliph who ruled from Template:CE until his assassination in 661, as well as the first Shia Imam. He was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Born to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Fatima bint Asad, Ali was raised by his elder cousin Muhammad and was among the first to accept his teachings.
Ali played a pivotal role in the early years of Islam when Muslims were severely persecuted in Mecca. After immigration (Template:Transliteration) to Medina in 622, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage and swore a pact of brotherhood with him. Ali served as Muhammad's secretary and deputy in this period, and was the flag bearer of his army. Numerous sayings of Muhammad praise Ali, the most controversial of which was uttered in 632 at the Ghadir Khumm, "Whoever I am his Template:Transliteration, this Ali is his Template:Transliteration." The interpretation of the polysemous Arabic word Template:Transliteration is disputed: For Shia Muslims, Muhammad thus invested Ali with his religious and political authority, while Sunni Muslims view this as a mere statement of friendship and rapport. When Muhammad died in the same year, a group of Muslims met in the absence of Ali and appointed Abu Bakr (Template:Reign) as their leader. Ali later relinquished his claims to leadership and resigned from public life during the reigns of Abu Bakr and his successor, Umar (Template:Reign). Even though his advice was occasionally sought, the conflicts between Ali and the first two caliphs are epitomized by his refusal to follow their practices. This refusal cost Ali the caliphate to the benefit of Uthman (Template:Reign), who was thus appointed to succeed Umar by the electoral council. Ali was also highly critical of Uthman, who was widely accused of nepotism and corruption. Yet Ali also repeatedly mediated between the caliph and the provincial dissidents angered by his policies.
Following Uthman's assassination in June 656, Ali was elected caliph in Medina. He immediately faced two separate rebellions, both ostensibly to avenge Uthman: The triumvirate of Talha, Zubayr, both companions of Muhammad, and his widow Aisha captured Basra in Iraq but were defeated by Ali in the Battle of the Camel in 656. Elsewhere, Mu'awiya, whom Ali had just removed from the governorship of Syria, fought against Ali the inconclusive Battle of Siffin in 657, which ended in a failed arbitration process that alienated some of Ali's supporters. These formed the Kharijites, who later terrorized the public and were crushed by Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan in 658. Ali was assassinated in 661 by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam, which paved the way for Mu'awiya to seize power and found the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate.
Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims. For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry. Sunni Muslims regard him as the last of the Template:Transliteration (Template:Lit) caliphs, while Shia Muslims venerate him as their first imam, that is, the rightful religious and political successor to Muhammad. Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Shia Muslim culture. The shrine of Ali in Najaf, Iraq, is a major destination for Shia pilgrimage. The legacy of Ali is collected and studied in numerous books, the most famous of which is Template:Transliteration.
Birth and early lifeEdit
Ali was born in Mecca to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and his wife Fatima bint Asad around 600 CE.Template:Sfn His date of birth is possibly 13 Rajab,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn which is the occasion celebrated annually by Shia Muslims.Template:Sfn Ali may have been the only person born inside the Ka'ba,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn the holiest site of Islam, which is located in Mecca. Ali's father was a leading member of the Banu Hashim, a clan within the Meccan tribe of Quraysh.Template:Sfn Abu Talib also raised his nephew Muhammad after his parents died. Later, when Abu Talib fell into poverty, Ali was taken in at the age of about five and raised by Muhammad and his wife Khadija.Template:Sfn
Aged about eleven,Template:Sfn Ali was among the first to accept Muhammad's teachings and profess Islam. Ali did so either after Khadija or after Khadija and Muhammad's successor, Abu Bakr. While the precise order here is debated among Shia and Sunni scholars,Template:Sfn the earliest sources place Ali before Abu Bakr.Template:Sfn Muhammad's call to Islam in Mecca lasted from 610 to 622, during which Ali assiduously supported the small Muslim community, especially the poor.Template:Sfn Some three years after his first revelation,Template:Sfn Muhammad gathered his relatives for a feast, invited them to Islam, and asked for their assistance.Template:Sfn Aged about fourteen,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali was the only relative there who offered his support, after which Muhammad told his guests that Ali was his brother and his successor,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn according to the Sunni historian al-Tabari (Template:Died in). The Shia interpretation of this episode is that Muhammad had already designated Ali as his successor.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Companionship of MuhammadEdit
When tipped off about an assassination plot in 622, Muhammad escaped to Yathrib, now known as Medina, but Ali stayed behind as his decoy.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn That Ali risked his life for Muhammad is said to be the reason for the revelation of the Quranic passage, "But there is also a kind of man who gives his life away to please God."Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn This emigration marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar (AH). Ali too escaped Mecca after returning the goods entrusted to Muhammad there.Template:Sfn Later in Medina, Muhammad selected Ali as his brother when he paired Muslims for fraternity pacts.Template:Sfn Around 623–625, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn aged about twenty-two at the time.Template:Sfn Muhammad had earlier turned down marriage proposals for Fatima by some of his companions, notably, Abu Bakr and Umar.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Event of the Template:TransliterationEdit
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A Christian envoy from Najran, located in South Arabia, arrived in Medina circa 632 and negotiated a peace treaty with Muhammad.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The envoy also debated with Muhammad the nature of Jesus, human or divine.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Linked to this episode is verse 3:61 of the Quran,Template:Sfn which instructs Muhammad to challenge his opponents to Template:Transliteration (Template:Lit),Template:Sfn perhaps when their debate had reached a deadlock.Template:Sfn Even though the delegation ultimately withdrew from the challenge,Template:Sfn Muhammad appeared for the occasion of Template:Transliteration, accompanied by Ali, his wife Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Husayn.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The inclusion of these four by Muhammad in the Template:Transliteration ritual, as his witnesses and guarantors,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn likely raised their religious rank within the community.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn If the word 'ourselves' in the verse is a reference to Ali and Muhammad, as Shia authors argue, then the former naturally enjoys a similar religious authority in the Quran as the latter.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
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Political careerEdit
In Medina, Ali acted as Muhammad's secretary and deputy.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He was also one of the scribes tasked with committing the Quran to writing.Template:Sfn In 628, Ali wrote down the terms of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, the peace treaty between Muslims and Meccan pagans. In 630, divine orders pushed Muhammad to replace Abu Bakr with Ali for a key Quranic announcement in Mecca,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn according to the canonical Sunni source Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn Ali also helped ensure that the Conquest of Mecca in 630 was bloodless and later destroyed the idols housed in Ka'ba.Template:Sfn In 631, Ali was sent to preach Islam in Yemen,Template:Sfn as a consequence of which the Hamdanids peacefully converted.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali also peacefully resolved a blood feud between Muslims and the Banu Jadhima.Template:Sfn
Military careerEdit
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Ali accompanied Muhammad in all of his military missions except the Expedition of Tabuk in 630, during which Ali was left behind in charge of Medina.Template:Sfn The hadith of the position is linked to this occasion, "Are you not content, Ali, to stand to me as Aaron stood to Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me?" This statement appears in the canonical Sunni sources Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration, among others.Template:Sfn For the Shia, this hadith signifies Ali's usurped right to succeed Muhammad.Template:Sfn In the absence of Muhammad, Ali commanded the expedition to Fadak in 628.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Ali was renowned for his bravery on the battlefield,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and for his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies.Template:Sfn He was the standard-bearer in the Battle of Badr (624) and the Battle of Khaybar (628).Template:Sfn He vigorously defended Muhammad in the Battle of Uhud (625) and the Battle of Hunayn (630),Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and Muslims' victory in the Battle of Khaybar has been attributed to his courage,Template:Sfn where he is said to have torn off the iron gate of the enemy fort.Template:Sfn Ali also defeated the pagan champion Amr ibn Abd Wudd in the Battle of the Trench in 627.Template:Sfn According to al-Tabari,Template:Sfn Muhammad reported hearing a divine voice at Uhud, "[There is] no sword but Zulfiqar [Ali's sword], [there is] no chivalrous youth (Template:Transliteration) but Ali."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali and another companion, Zubayr, apparently oversaw the killing of the Banu Qurayza men for treachery in 626Template:Ndash627,Template:Sfn though the historicity of this account has been doubted.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Ghadir KhummEdit
On his return trip from the Hajj pilgrimage in 632, Muhammad halted the large caravan of pilgrims at the Ghadir Khumm and addressed them after the congregational prayer.Template:Sfn After the prayer,Template:Sfn Muhammad delivered a sermon to a large number of Muslims in which he emphasized the importance of the Quran and his Template:Transliteration (Template:Lit, his family).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Taking Ali by the hand, Muhammad then asked if he was not Template:Transliteration (Template:Lit) the believers than themselves,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn this is evidently a reference to verse 33:6 of the Quran.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn When they affirmed,Template:Sfn Muhammad then declared, "He whose Template:Transliteration I am, Ali is his Template:Transliteration."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Template:Transliteration, a canonical Sunni source, adds that Muhammad repeated this statement three or four more times and that Umar congratulated Ali after the sermon, "You have now become the Template:Transliteration of every faithful man and woman."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Muhammad had earlier alerted Muslims about his impending death.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Shia sources describe the event in greater detail, linking the announcement to verses 5:3 and 5:67 of the Quran.Template:Sfn
The authenticity of the Ghadir Khumm is rarely contested,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn as its "among the most extensively acknowledged and substantiated" reports in classical Islamic sources.Template:Sfn However, Template:Transliteration is a polysemous Arabic word and its interpretation in the context of the Ghadir Khumm is split along sectarian lines. Shia sources interpret Template:Transliteration as 'leader', 'master', and 'patron',Template:Sfn while Sunni sources interpret it as love or support for Ali.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Shias, therefore, view the Ghadir Khumm as the investiture of Ali with Muhammad's religious and political authority,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn while Sunnis regard it as a statement about the rapport between the two men,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn or that Ali should execute Muhammad's will.Template:Sfn Shias point to the extraordinary nature of the announcement,Template:Sfn give Quranic and textual evidence,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and argue to eliminate other meanings of Template:Transliteration in the hadith except for authority,Template:Sfn while Sunnis minimize the importance of the Ghadir Khumm by casting it as a simple response to earlier complaints about Ali.Template:Sfn During his caliphate, Ali is known to have asked Muslims to come forward with their testimonies about the Ghadir Khumm,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn presumably to counter challenges to his legitimacy.Template:Sfn
Life under Rashidun CaliphsEdit
Succession to MuhammadEdit
SaqifaEdit
Muhammad died in 632 when Ali was in his early thirties.Template:Sfn As he and other close relatives prepared for the burial,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn a group of the Ansar (Medinan natives, Template:Literal translation) gathered at the Saqifa to discuss the future of Muslims or to retake control of their city, Medina. Abu Bakr and Umar were among the few representatives of the Muhajirun (Meccan converts, Template:Literal translation) at the Saqifa.Template:Sfn The case of Ali was unsuccessfully brought up at the Saqifa in his absence,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and, ultimately, those present there appointed Abu Bakr to leadership after a heated debate that is said to have become violent.Template:Sfn Clan rivalries at the Saqifa played a key role in favor of Abu Bakr,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and the outcome may have been different in a broad council ([[Shura|Template:Transliteration]]) with Ali as a candidate.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In particular, the Quraysh tradition of hereditary succession strongly favored Ali,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn even though his youth weakened his case.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn By contrast, the succession (caliphate) of Abu Bakr is often justified on the basis that he led some of the prayers in Muhammad's final days,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn but the veracity and political significance of such reports have been questioned.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Attack on Fatima's houseEdit
While the appointment of Abu Bakr was met with little resistance in Medina,Template:Sfn the Banu Hashim and some companions of Muhammad soon gathered in protest at Ali's house.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Among them were Zubayr and Muhammad's uncle Abbas.Template:Sfn These protestors held Ali to be the rightful successor to Muhammad,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn probably in reference to the Ghadir Khumm.Template:Sfn Among others,Template:Sfn al-Tabari reports that Umar then led an armed mob to Ali's residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters did not pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakr.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The scene soon grew violent,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn but the mob retreated after Ali's wife, Fatima, pleaded with them.Template:Sfn Abu Bakr later placed a successful boycott on the Banu Hashim,Template:Sfn who eventually abandoned their support for Ali.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Most likely, Ali himself did not pledge his allegiance to Abu Bakr until Fatima died within six months of her father, Muhammad.Template:Sfn In Shia sources, the death (and miscarriage) of the young Fatima are attributed to an attack on her house to subdue Ali by the order of Abu Bakr.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Sunnis categorically reject these reports,Template:Sfn but there is evidence in their early sources that a mob entered Fatima's house by force and arrested Ali,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn an incident that Abu Bakr regretted on his deathbed.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Likely a political move to weaken the Banu Hashim,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Abu Bakr had earlier confiscated from Fatima the rich lands of Fadak, which she considered her inheritance (or a gift) from her father.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The confiscation of Fadak is often justified in Sunni sources with a hadith about prophetic inheritance, the authenticity of which has been doubted partly because it contradicts Quranic injunctions.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Caliphate of Abu Bakr (r. 632–634)Edit
In the absence of popular support, Ali eventually accepted the temporal rule of Abu Bakr, probably for the sake of Muslim unity.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn In particular, Ali turned down proposals to forcefully pursue the caliphate.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He nevertheless viewed himself as the most qualified candidate for leadership by virtue of his merits and his kinship with Muhammad.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Evidence suggests that Ali further considered himself as the designated successor of Muhammad.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Unlike Muhammad's lifetime,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali retired from public life during the caliphates of Abu Bakr and his successors, Umar and Uthman.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali did not participate in the Ridda wars and the early Muslim conquests,Template:Sfn though he remained an advisor to Abu Bakr and Umar on government and religious matters.,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn However, their conflicts with Ali is also well-documented,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn but largely ignored in Sunni sources.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn These tensions were epitomized during the proceedings of the electoral council in 644 when Ali refused to be bound by the precedence of the first two caliphs.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In contrast, Shia sources view Ali's pledge to Abu Bakr as a (coerced) act of political expediency (Template:Transliteration).Template:Sfn The conflicts with Ali are probably magnified in Shia sources.Template:Sfn
Caliphate of Umar (r. 634–644)Edit
Before his death in 634, Abu Bakr designated Umar as his successor.Template:Sfn Ali was not consulted about this appointment, which was initially resisted by some senior companions.Template:Sfn Ali himself did not press any claims this time and kept aloof from public affairs during the caliphate of Umar,Template:Sfn who nevertheless consulted Ali in certain matters.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn For instance, Ali is credited with the idea of adopting the migration to Medina ([[Hijrah|Template:Transliteration]]) as the beginning of the Islamic calendar.Template:Sfn Yet Ali's political advice was probably ignored.Template:Sfn For example, Umar devised a state register (Template:Transliteration) to distribute excess state revenues according to Islamic precedence,Template:Sfn but Ali held that those revenues should be equally distributed among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali was also absent from the strategic meeting of notables near Damascus.Template:Sfn Ali did not participate in Umar's military expeditions,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn although he does not seem to have publicly objected to them.Template:Sfn Umar likely opposed the combination of prophethood and caliphate in the Banu Hashim,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and he thus prevented Muhammad from dictating his will on his deathbed,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn possibly fearing that he might expressly designate Ali as his successor.Template:Sfn Nevertheless, perhaps realizing the necessity of Ali's cooperation in his collaborative scheme of governance, Umar made some limited overtures to Ali and the Banu Hashim during his caliphate.Template:Sfn For instance, Umar returned Muhammad's estates in Medina to Ali, but kept Fadak and Khayber.Template:Sfn By some accounts, Umar also insisted on marrying Ali's daughter Umm Kulthum, to which Ali reluctantly agreed when the former enlisted public support for his demand.Template:Sfn
Election of Uthman (644)Edit
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Before his death in 644,Template:Sfn Umar tasked a small committee with choosing the next caliph among themselves.Template:Sfn Ali and Uthman were the strongest candidates in this committee,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn whose members were all early companions of Muhammad from the Quraysh tribe.Template:Sfn Another member, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, was given the deciding vote either by the committee or by Umar.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn After deliberations, Ibn Awf appointed his brother-in-law Uthman as the next caliph,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn when the latter promised to follow the precedent of the first two caliphs.Template:Sfn By contrast, Ali rejected this condition,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn or gave an evasive answer.Template:Sfn The Ansar were not represented in the committee,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn which was evidently biased toward Uthman.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Both of these factors worked against Ali,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn who could have not been simply excluded from the proceedings.Template:Sfn
Caliphate of Uthman (r. 644–656)Edit
Uthman was widely accused of nepotism,Template:Sfn corruption,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and injustice.Template:Sfn Ali too criticized Uthman's conduct,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn including his lavish gifts for his kinsmen.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali also protected outspoken companions, such as Abu Dharr and Ammar,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and overall acted as a restraining influence on Uthman.Template:Sfn Some supporters of Ali were part of the opposition movement,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn joined in their efforts by Talha and Zubayr, both senior companions of Muhammad, and by his widow Aisha.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Among such supporters of Ali were Malik al-Ashtar and other religiously learned Template:Transliteration (Template:Lit).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn These supporters wanted to see Ali as the next caliph but there is no evidence that he coordinated with them.Template:Sfn Ali also rejected the requests to lead the rebels,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn although he probably sympathized with their grievances.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He was therefore considered a natural focus for the opposition,Template:Sfn at least morally.Template:Sfn
Assassination of Uthman (656)Edit
As their grievances mounted, provincial dissidents poured into Medina in 656.Template:Sfn The Egyptian opposition sought the advice of Ali, who urged them to negotiate with Uthman.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali similarly asked the Iraqi opposition to refrain from violence, which they heeded.Template:Sfn He also repeatedly mediated between Uthman and the dissidents,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn to address their economical and political grievances.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In particular, Ali negotiated and guaranteed the agreement that ended the first siege.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He then convinced Uthman to publicly repent,Template:Sfn but the caliph soon retracted his statement, possibly pressed by his secretary Marwan ibn al-Hakam.Template:Sfn Egyptian rebels laid siege to Uthman's residence for a second time when they intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment. They demanded the caliph's abdication but he refused and maintained his innocence about the letter,Template:Sfn for which Marwan is often blamed in the early sources.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali also sided with Uthman,Template:Sfn but the caliph apparently accused him about the letter.Template:Sfn This is probably when Ali refused to further intercede for Uthman,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn who was assassinated soon afterward by Egyptian rebels.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali played no role in the deadly attack,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and his son Hasan was injured while guarding Uthman's besieged residence at the request of Ali.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn He also convinced the rebels to deliver water to Uthman's house during the siege.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
CaliphateEdit
Election (656)Edit
When Uthman was assassinated in 656 by Egyptian rebels,Template:Sfn the potential candidates for caliphate were Ali and Talha. The Umayyads had fled Medina, leaving the provincial rebels and the Ansar in control of the city. Among the Egyptians, Talha enjoyed some support, but the Iraqis and most of the Ansar supported Ali.Template:Sfn The majority of the Muhajirun,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and key tribal figures also favored Ali at this time.Template:Sfn The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali, who, after some hesitation,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn publicly took the oath of office.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Malik al-Ashtar might have been the first to pledge his allegiance to Ali.Template:Sfn Talha and Zubayr, who both aspired to the caliphate,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn also gave their pledges to Ali, most likely willingly,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn but later broke their oaths.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali probably did not force anyone to pledge,Template:Sfn and there is little evidence of any violence, even though many broke with Ali later, claiming that they had pledged under duress.Template:Sfn At the same time, the supporters, who were in majority in Medina, might have intimidated others.Template:Sfn
LegitimacyEdit
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Ali thus filled the power vacuum created by the regicide.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn His election, irregular and without a council,Template:Sfn faced little public opposition in Medina,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn but the rebels' support for him left him exposed to accusations of complicity in Uthman's assassination.Template:Sfn Even though underprivileged groups readily rallied around Ali,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn he had limited support among the powerful Quraysh, some of whom aspired to caliphate.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Within the Quraysh, two camps opposed Ali: the Umayyads, who believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman, and those who wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the same principles laid by Abu Bakr and Umar. This second group was likely the majority within the Quraysh.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali was indeed vocal about the divine prerogative of Muhammad's kin to leadership,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn which would have jeopardized the political ambitions of the rest of the Quraysh.Template:Sfn
Administrative policiesEdit
JusticeEdit
The caliphate of Ali was characterized by his strict justice.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn He implemented radical policies to restore his vision of prophetic governance,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and dismissed nearly all of Uthman's governors,Template:Sfn whom he considered corrupt.Template:Sfn Ali also distributed the treasury funds equally among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad,Template:Sfn and is said to have shown zero tolerance for corruption.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Some of those affected by Ali's egalitarian policies soon revolted against him under the pretext of revenge for Uthman.Template:Sfn Among them was Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria.Template:Sfn Ali has therefore been criticized by some for political naivety and excessive rigorism,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and praised by others for righteousness and lack of political expediency.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn His supporters identify similar decisions of Muhammad,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and argue that Islam never allows for compromising on a just cause, citing verse 68:9 of the Quran,Template:Sfn "They wish that thou might compromise and that they might compromise."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Some instead suggest that Ali's decisions were actually justified on a practical level.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn For instance, the removal of unpopular governors was perhaps the only option available to Ali because injustice was the main grievance of the rebels.Template:Sfn
Religious authorityEdit
As evident from his public speeches,Template:Sfn Ali viewed himself not only as the temporal leader of the Muslim community but also as its exclusive religious authority.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He thus laid claim to the religious authority to interpret the Quran and Sunna.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Some supporters of Ali indeed held him as their divinely-guided leader who deserved the same type of loyalty that Muhammad did.Template:Sfn They felt an absolute and all-encompassing bond of spiritual loyalty (Template:Transliteration) to Ali that transcended politics.Template:Sfn For instance, many of them publicly offered Ali their unconditional support circa 658.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They justified their absolute loyalty to Ali on the basis of his merits, precedent in Islam,Template:Sfn his kinship with Muhammad,Template:Sfn and also the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm.Template:Sfn Many of these supporters also viewed Ali as the rightful successor to Muhammad after his death,Template:Sfn as evidenced in the poetry from that period, for instance.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Fiscal policiesEdit
Ali opposed centralized control over provincial revenues.Template:Sfn He equally distributed excess taxes and booty among Muslims,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn following the precedent of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In comparison, Umar had distributed the state revenues according to perceived Islamic merit,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and Uthman was widely accused of nepotism and corruption.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The strictly egalitarian policies of Ali earned him the support of underprivileged groups, including the Ansar, the Template:Transliteration, and the late immigrants to Iraq.Template:Sfn By contrast, Talha and Zubayr were both Qurayshite companions of Muhammad who had amassed immense wealth under Uthman.Template:Sfn They both revolted against Ali when he refused to grant them favors.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Some other figures among the Quraysh similarly turned against Ali,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn who even withheld public funds from his relatives,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn whereas his archenemy Mu'awiya readily offered bribes.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali instructed his officials to collect tax payments on a voluntary basis and without harassment, and to prioritize the poor when distributing public funds.Template:Sfn A letter attributed to Ali directs his governor to pay more attention to land development than taxation.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Rules of warEdit
During the Muslim civil war, Ali forbade his soldiers from looting,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and instead paid them from tax revenues.Template:Sfn He also pardoned his enemies in victory.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Both of these practices were later enshrined in Islamic law.Template:Sfn Ali also advised his commander al-Ashtar not to reject any calls to peace, not to violate any agreements,Template:Sfn and ordered him not to commence hostilities.Template:Sfn Ali similarly barred his troops from disturbing civilians,Template:Sfn killing the wounded and those who fled, mutilating the dead, entering homes without permission, looting, and harming women.Template:Sfn He prevented the enslavement of women in victory, even though some protested.Template:Sfn Before the Battle of Siffin with Mu'awiya, Ali did not retaliate and allowed his enemies to access drinking water when he gained the upper hand.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Battle of the CamelEdit
Aisha publicly campaigned against Ali immediately after his accession.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn She was joined in Mecca by her close relatives, Talha and Zubayr,Template:Sfn who thus broke their earlier oaths of allegiance to Ali.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn This opposition demanded the punishment of Uthman's assassins,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and accused Ali of complicity in the assassination.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn They also called for the removal of Ali from office and for a Qurayshite council to appoint his successor.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Their primary goal was likely the removal of Ali, rather than vengeance for Uthman,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn against whom the triumvirate had stirred up public opinion.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The opposition failed to gain enough traction in Hejaz,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and instead captured Basra in Iraq,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn killing many there. Ali raised an army from nearby Kufa,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn which formed the core of Ali's forces in the coming battles.Template:Sfn The two armies soon camped just outside of Basra,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn both probably numbered around ten thousand men.Template:Sfn After three days of failed negotiations,Template:Sfn the two sides readied for battle.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Account of the battleEdit
The battle took place in December 656.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The rebels commenced hostilities,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and Aisha was present on the battlefield, riding in an armored palanquin atop a red camel, after which the battle is named.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Talha was soon killed by another rebel, Marwan, the secretary of Uthman.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Zubayr, an experienced fighter, deserted shortly after the battle had begun,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn but was pursued and killed.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn His desertion suggests he had serious moral misgivings about their cause.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali won the day,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and Aisha was respectfully escorted back to Hejaz.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali then announced a public pardon,Template:Sfn setting free all war prisoners, even Marwan,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and prohibiting the enslavement of their women. Their seized properties were also returned.Template:Sfn Ali then stationed himself in Kufa,Template:Sfn which thus became his de facto capital.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Battle of SiffinEdit
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Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria, was deemed corrupt and unfit by Ali,Template:Sfn who wrote to and removed him from his post.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn In turn, Mu'awiya, as Uthman's cousin, launched a propaganda campaign across Syria, blaming Ali for the regicide and calling for revenge.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mu'awiya also joined forces with Amr ibn al-As,Template:Sfn a military strategist,Template:Sfn who pledged to back the Umayyads against Ali in return for life-long governorship of Egypt.Template:Sfn Yet Mu'awiya also secretly offered to recognize the caliphate of Ali in return for Syria and Egypt,Template:Sfn which Ali rejected.Template:Sfn Mu'awiya then formally declared war, charging Ali with regicide, demanding his removal, and a Syrian council thereafter to elect the next caliph.Template:Sfn Contemporary authors tend to view Mu'awiya's call for revenge as a pretext for a power grab.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Account of the battleEdit
In the summer of 657, the armies of Ali and Mu'awiya camped at Siffin, west of the Euphrates River,Template:Sfn numbering perhaps at 100,000 and 130,000, respectively.Template:Sfn Many of Muhammad's companions were present in Ali's army, whereas Mu'awiya could only boast a handful.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The two sides negotiated for a while, to no avail,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn after which the main battle took place from Wednesday, 26 July 657,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn until Friday or Saturday morning.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali probably refrained from initiating hostilities,Template:Sfn and later fought alongside his men on the frontline, whereas Mu'awiya led from his pavilion,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and rejected a proposal to settle the matters in a personal duel with Ali.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Among those killed fighting for Ali was Ammar.Template:Sfn In canonical Sunni sources, a prophetic hadith predicts Ammar's death at the hands of Template:Transliteration (Template:Lit) who call to hellfire.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Call to arbitrationEdit
Fighting stopped when some Syrians raised pages of the Quran on their lances, shouting, "Let the Book of God be the judge between us."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Since Mu'awiya had for long insisted on battle, this call for arbitration suggests that he now feared defeat.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn By contrast, Ali exhorted his men to fight, telling them that raising Qurans was for deception, but to no avail.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Through their representatives, the Template:Transliteration and the Template:Transliteration tribesmen of Kufa,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn the largest bloc in Ali's army,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn both threatened Ali with mutiny if he did not answer the Syrians' call.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Facing strong peace sentiments in his army, Ali accepted the arbitration proposal,Template:Sfn most likely against his own judgment.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Arbitration agreementEdit
Mu'awiya now proposed that representatives from both sides should find a Quranic resolution.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mu'awiya was represented by his ally Amr,Template:Sfn whereas, despite Ali's opposition, the majority in his camp pressed for the neutral Abu Musa, the erstwhile governor of Kufa.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The arbitration agreement was written and signed on 2 August 657,Template:Sfn stipulating that the two representatives should meet on neutral territory,Template:Sfn adhere to the Quran and Sunna, and restore peace.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Both armies left the battlefield after the agreement.Template:Sfn The arbitration agreement thus divided Ali's camp, as many did not support his negotiations with Mu'awiya, whose claims they considered fraudulent. By contrast, the agreement strengthened Mu'awiya's position, who was now an equal contender for the caliphate.Template:Sfn
Formation of the KharijitesEdit
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Some of Ali's men left him in protest to the arbitration agreement.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Many of them eventually rejoined Ali,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn while the rest gathered in the town of al-Nahrawan.Template:Sfn They became known as the Kharijites (Template:Lit), who later took up arms against Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Kharijites, many of whom belonged to the Template:Transliteration,Template:Sfn were likely disillusioned with the arbitration process.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Their slogan was, "No judgment but that of God,"Template:Sfn highlighting their rejection of arbitration (by men) in reference to the Quranic verse 49:9.Template:Sfn Ali called this slogan a word of truth by which the seceders sought falsehood because he viewed the ruler as indispensable in the conduct of religion.Template:Sfn
Arbitration proceedingsEdit
The two arbitrators met together in Dumat al-Jandal,Template:Sfn perhaps in February 658.Template:Sfn There they reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn They could not agree on anything else.Template:Sfn Rather than a judicial ruling, this was a political concession by Abu Musa, who probably hoped that Amr would later reciprocate this gesture.Template:Sfn Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began organizing a second Syria campaign.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Solely an initiative of Mu'awiya,Template:Sfn there was also a second meeting in Udhruh.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The negotiations there also failed,Template:Sfn as the two arbitrators could not agree on the next caliph: Amr supported Mu'awiya,Template:Sfn while Abu Musa nominated his son-in-law Abd Allah ibn Umar,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn who stood down.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn At its closure, Abu Musa publicly deposed both Mu'awiya and Ali and called for a council to appoint his successor per earlier agreements with Amr. When Amr took the stage, however, he deposed Ali and appointed Mu'awiya as his successor.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions,Template:Sfn and the common view is that the arbitration failed,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn or was inconclusive.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn It nevertheless strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Battle of NahrawanEdit
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After the arbitration, Mu'awiya received the Syrians' pledge as caliph.Template:Sfn Ali then organized a new, much smaller,Template:Sfn Syria campaign.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn But he postponed the expedition,Template:Sfn and instead marched to Nahrawan with his army,Template:Sfn when he learned that the Kharijites were interrogating and executing civilians.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They killed many, apparently not even sparing women.Template:Sfn Ali convinced many of the Kharijites to separate from their army, leaving about 1,500Template:Ndash1,800, or 2,800, out of about 4,000 fighters.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The rest of the Kharijites then attacked and were crushed by Ali's army of about 14,000 men.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The battle took place either on 17 July 658,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn or in 657.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali has been criticized by some for killing his erstwhile allies,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn many of whom were outwardly pious Muslims. For others, subduing the Kharijites was necessary, for they were violent and radicalized rebels who posed a danger to Ali's base in Kufa.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Final yearsEdit
Following the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali could not muster enough support for a second Syria campaign.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Perhaps his soldiers were demoralized,Template:Sfn or perhaps they were recalled by their tribal leaders,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn many of whom had been bribed and swayed by Mu'awiya.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn By contrast, Ali did not grant any financial favors to tribal chiefs as a matter of principle.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn At any rate, the secession of so many of the Template:Transliteration and the coolness of the tribal leaders weakened Ali.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali consequently lost Egypt to Mu'awiya in 658.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mu'awiya also began dispatching military detachments,Template:Sfn which targeted civilians along the Euphrates river, near Kufa, and most successfully, in the Hejaz and Yemen.Template:Sfn Ali could not mount a timely response to these assaults.Template:Sfn He eventually found sufficient support for a second Syria offensive, set to commence in late winter 661. His success was in part due to the public outrage over Syrian raids.Template:Sfn However, plans for a second campaign were abandoned after the assassination of Ali.Template:Sfn
Assassination and burialEdit
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Ali was assassinated during the morning prayer on 28 January 661 (19 Ramadan 40 AH) at the Great Mosque of Kufa. The other given dates are 26 and 30 January. He was struck over his head by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam with a poison-coated sword,Template:Sfn in revenge for their defeat in the Battle of Nahrawan.Template:Sfn Ali died from his wounds about two days later, aged sixty-two or sixty-three. By some accounts, he had long known about his fate by premonition or through Muhammad.Template:Sfn Before his death, Ali requested either a meticulous application of Template:Transliteration to Ibn Muljam or his pardon. At any rate, Ibn Muljam was later executed by Hasan, the eldest son of Ali.Template:Sfn Fearing that his body might be exhumed and profaned by his enemies, Ali's burial place was kept a secret and remains uncertain.Template:Sfn Several sites are mentioned as containing Ali's remains, including the shrine of Ali in Najaf and the shrine of Ali in Mazar.Template:Sfn The former site was identified during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (Template:Reign) and the town of Najaf developed around it, which has become a major destination for Shia pilgrimage.Template:Sfn The present shrine was built by the Safavid monarch Safi (Template:Reign),Template:Sfn near which lies an immense cemetery for Shias who wished to be buried next to their imam.Template:Sfn Najaf is also home to top religious colleges and prominent Shia scholars.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Other sites for Ali's burial are claimed to be Baghdad, Damascus, Medina, Ray while a minority of Shias believe it be somewhere in the city of Kufa.Template:Sfn
SuccessionEdit
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When Ali died, his son Hasan was acknowledged as the next caliph in Kufa.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn As Ali's legatee, Hasan was the obvious choice for the Kufans, especially because Ali was vocal about the exclusive right of Muhammad's kin to leadership.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Most surviving companions of Muhammad were in Ali's army, and they also pledged their allegiance to Hasan,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn but overall the Kufans' support for Hasan was likely weak.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Hasan later abdicated in August 661 to Mu'awiya when the latter marched on Iraq with a large force.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mu'awiya thus founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate. Throughout his reign, he persecuted the family and supporters of Ali,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and mandated regular public cursing of Ali.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Descendants of AliEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}Template:See also The first marriage of Ali was to Fatima, who bore him three sons, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhsin.Template:Sfn Muhsin either died in infancy,Template:Sfn or Fatima miscarried him when she was injured in a raid on her house during the succession crisis.Template:Sfn The descendants of Hasan and Husayn are known as the Hasanids and the Husaynids, respectively.Template:Sfn As the progeny of Muhammad, they are honored in Muslim communities by nobility titles such as Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn Ali and Fatima also had two daughters, Zaynab and Umm Kulthum.Template:Sfn After Fatima's death in 632, Ali remarried multiple times and had more children, including Muhammad al-Awsat and Abbas ibn Ali.Template:Sfn In his life, Ali fathered seventeen daughters, and eleven, fourteen, or eighteen sons,Template:Sfn among whom, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya played a historical role.Template:Sfn Descendants of Ali are known as the Alids.Template:Sfn
Under the Umayyads (661Template:Ndash750)Edit
Mu'awiya succeeded Ali in 661 and founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate,Template:Sfn during which Alids were severely persecuted.Template:Sfn After Ali, his followers (Template:Transliteration) recognized his eldest son Hasan as their imam. When he died in 670, likely poisoned at the instigation of Mu'awiya,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn the Shia community followed Hasan's younger brother Husayn, who was killed by Umayyad forces in the Battle of Karbala in 680, alongside many of his relatives.Template:Sfn To revenge the Karbala massacre, soon followed in 685 the Shia uprising of al-Mukhtar, who claimed to represent Ibn al-Hanafiyya.Template:Sfn The main movements that followed this uprising were the now-extinct Kaysanites and the Imamites.Template:Sfn The Kaysanites mostly followed Abu Hashim, the son of Ibn al-Hanafiya. When Abu Hashim died around 716, this group largely aligned itself with the Abbasids, that is, the descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On the other hand, the Imamites were led by quiescent descendants of Husayn, through his only surviving son, Ali Zayn al-Abidin (Template:Died in). An exception was Ali's son Zayd, who led a failed uprising against the Umayyads around 740.Template:Sfn For his followers, known as the Zaydites, any learned Hasanid or Husaynid who rose against tyranny qualified as imam.Template:Sfn
Under the Abbasids (750Template:Ndash1258)Edit
Alids were also persecuted under the Abbasids, who toppled the Umayyads in 750.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Some of the Alids thus revolted,Template:Sfn while some established regional dynasties in remote areas.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In particular, through imprisonment or surveillance, the Abbasids removed the imams of the Imamites from public life,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and they are thought to be responsible for the imams' deaths.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mainstream Imamites were the antecedents of the Twelvers,Template:Sfn who believe that their twelfth and final imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was born around 868,Template:Sfn but was hidden from the public in 874 for fear of persecution. He remains in occultation by divine will until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The only historic split among the Imamites happened when their sixth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, died in 765.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Some claimed that his designated successor was his son Isma'il, who had predeceased al-Sadiq. These were the antecedents of the Isma'ilites,Template:Sfn who found political success at the turn of the tenth century,Template:Sfn as the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and the Qarmatians in Bahrain.Template:Sfn
WorksEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Template:See also
Most of the works attributed to Ali were first delivered as speeches and later committed to writing by others. There are also supplications, such as Du'a Kumayl, which he may have taught others.Template:Sfn
Template:TransliterationEdit
Template:Transliteration (Template:Lit) is an eleventh-century collection of sermons, letters, and sayings, all attributed to Ali, compiled by Sharif al-Radi (Template:Died in), a prominent Twelver scholar.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Because of its sometimes sensitive content, the authenticity of Template:Transliteration has long been polemically debated. However, by tracking its content in earlier sources, recent academic research has attributed most of Template:Transliteration to Ali.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The book, particularly its letter of instructions addressed at al-Ashtar,Template:Sfn has served as an ideological basis for Islamic governance.Template:Sfn The book also includes detailed discussions about social responsibilities, emphasizing that greater responsibilities result in greater rights.Template:Sfn Template:Transliteration also contains sensitive material, such as sharp criticism of Ali's predecessors in its Shaqshaqiya sermon,Template:Sfn and disapproval of Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr, who had revolted against Ali.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Celebrated as an example of the most eloquent Arabic,Template:Sfn Template:Transliteration has significantly influenced the Arabic literature and rhetoric.Template:Sfn Numerous commentaries have been written about the book, including the comprehensive work of the Mu'tazilite scholar Ibn Abil-Hadid (Template:Died in).Template:Sfn
Template:TransliterationEdit
Template:Transliteration (Template:Literal translation) was compiled by Abd al-Wahid al-Amidi (Template:Died in), who was either a Shafi'i jurist or a Twelver scholar. The book contains thousands of short sayings of Ali on piety and ethics.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn These aphorisms and other works attributed to Ali have considerably influenced the Islamic mysticism.Template:Sfn
Mushaf of AliEdit
Mushaf of Ali is a recension of the Quran compiled by Ali, who was one of its first scribes.Template:Sfn By some Shia accounts, this codex (Template:Transliteration) of Ali was rejected for official use during the succession crisis.Template:Sfn Some early Shia traditions also suggest differences with the standard Uthmanid codex,Template:Sfn although now the prevalent Shia view is that Ali's recension matches the Uthmanid codex, save for the order of its content.Template:Sfn Ali's codex is said to be in the possession of Muhammad al-Mahdi, who would reveal the codex (and its authoritative commentary by Ali) when he reappears.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Template:TransliterationEdit
Template:Transliteration (Template:Literal translation) is a non-extant collection of prophetic sayings gathered by Ali. The book may have concerned matters of lawfulness ([[halal|Template:Transliteration]]) and unlawfulness ([[haram|Template:Transliteration]]), including a detailed penal code. Template:Transliteration is also often linked to Template:Transliteration, which is said to contain the esoteric teachings of Muhammad for his household.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Copies of Template:Transliteration were likely available until the early eighth century, and parts of it have survived in later Shia and Sunni works.Template:Sfn
Other worksEdit
The Template:Transliteration is a popular Shia supplication attributed to Ali, transmitted by his companion, Kumayl ibn Ziyad.Template:Sfn Also attributed to Ali is Template:Transliteration on Islamic law, fully quoted in the Shia hadith collection Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn The judicial decisions and executive orders of Ali during his caliphate have also been recorded.Template:Sfn Other extant works attributed to Ali are collected in Template:Transliteration and other Shia sources.Template:Sfn
Contributions to Islamic sciencesEdit
Template:Main article The standard recitation of the Quran has been traced back to Ali,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and his written legacy is dotted with Quranic commentaries.Template:Sfn Ibn Abbas, a leading early exegete, credited Ali with his interpretations of the Quran.Template:Sfn Ali also related several hundred prophetic hadiths.Template:Sfn He is further credited with the first systematic evaluations of hadiths, and is often considered a founding figure for hadith sciences.Template:Sfn Ali is also regarded by some as the founder of Islamic theology, and his sayings contain the first rational proofs of the unity of God (Template:Transliteration) in Islam.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In later Islamic philosophy, Ali's sayings and sermons were mined for metaphysical knowledge.Template:Sfn In particular, Template:Transliteration is a vital source for Shia philosophical doctrines, after the Quran and Sunna.Template:Sfn As a Shia imam, statements and practices attributed to Ali are widely studied in Shia Islam, where they are viewed as the continuation of prophetic teachings.Template:Sfn
Names and titlesEdit
Ali is known by many honorifics in the Islamic tradition, some of which are especially used by Shias.Template:Sfn His main Template:Transliteration (teknonym) was Template:Transliteration ("father of al-Hasan").Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn His titles include al-Murtaḍā (Template:Lit),Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Asad Allāh (Template:Lit),Template:Sfn Ḥaydar (Template:Lit, the name initially her mother gave him),Template:Sfn Amīr al-Muʾminīn (Template:Lit), and Imām al-Muttaqin (Template:Lit).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In particular, Twelvers consider the title of Amir al-Mu'minin to be unique to Ali.Template:Sfn He is also referred to as Abū Turāb (Template:Lit),Template:Sfn which might have initially been a pejorative by his enemies.Template:Sfn
CharacterEdit
Often praised for his piety and courage,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali fought to uphold his beliefs,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn but was also magnanimous in victory,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn even risking the ire of some supporters to prevent the enslavement of women.Template:Sfn He also showed his grief, wept for the dead, and reportedly prayed over his enemies.Template:Sfn Yet Ali has also been criticized for his idealism and political inflexibility,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn for his egalitarian policies and strict justice antagonized many.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Or perhaps these qualities were also present in Muhammad,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn whom the Quran addresses as, "They wish that thou [Muhammad] might compromise and that they might compromise."Template:Sfn At any rate, these qualities of Ali, rooted in his religious beliefs, contributed to his image today for his followers as a paragon of Islamic virtues,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn particularly justice.Template:Sfn Ali is also viewed as the model Template:Transliteration for Islamic chivalry (Template:Transliteration).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Historical accounts about Ali are often tendentious.Template:Sfn For instance, in person, Ali is described in some Sunni sources as bald, heavy-built, short-legged, with broad shoulders, hairy body, long white beard, and affected by eye inflammation.Template:Sfn Shia accounts about the appearance of Ali are markedly different. Those perhaps better match his reputation as a capable warrior.Template:Sfn Likewise, in manner, Ali is presented in some Sunni sources as rough, brusque, and unsociable.Template:Sfn By contrast, Shia sources describe him as generous, gentle, and cheerful,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn to the point that the Syrian war propaganda accused him of frivolity.Template:Sfn Shia and Sufi sources are also replete with reports about his acts of kindness, especially to the poor.Template:Sfn The necessary qualities in a commander, described in a letter attributed to Ali, may have well been a portrait of himself: slow to anger, happy to pardon, kind to the weak, and severe with the strong.Template:Sfn His companion, Sa'sa'a ibn Suhan, described him similarly, "He [Ali] was amongst us as one of us, of gentle disposition, intense humility, leading with a light touch, even though we were in awe of him with the kind of awe that a bound prisoner has before one who holds a sword over his head."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Assessment and legacyEdit
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In IslamEdit
Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Muslim culture.Template:Sfn Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims.Template:Sfn For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry.Template:Sfn
In the QuranEdit
Ali regularly represented Muhammad in missions which are commonly linked to Quranic injunctions.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn For instance, the [[Verse of walaya|verse of Template:Transliteration]] (5:55) is a reference to when Ali gave his ring to a beggar, while praying in the mosque, according to Shia and some Sunni accounts.Template:Sfn If so, then this verse gives Ali the same spiritual authority (Template:Transliteration) as Muhammad.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In Shia sources, the Template:Transliteration (5:67) spurred Muhammad to designate Ali as his successor at the Ghadir Khumm, while the Template:Transliteration (5:3) subsequently announced the perfection of Islam.Template:Sfn The verse of purification (33:33) concerns the status of purity of the Ahl al-Bayt (Template:Lit), which is limited to Ali, Fatima, and their two sons in Shia and some Sunni sources.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Another reference to the Ahl al-Bayt might be the [[Verse of mawadda|verse of Template:Transliteration]] (42:23).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn For Shias, this verse is a Quranic mandate to love and follow the Ahl al-Bayt.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In hadith literatureEdit
Muhammad frequently praise the qualities of Ali. The most controversial such statement, "He whose Template:Transliteration I am, Ali is his Template:Transliteration," was delivered at the Ghadir Khumm. This gave Ali the same spiritual authority (Template:Transliteration) as Muhammad, according to the Shia.Template:Sfn Elsewhere, the hadith of the position likens Muhammad and Ali to Moses and Aaron,Template:Sfn and thus supports the usurped right of Ali to succeed Muhammad in Shia Islam.Template:Sfn Other examples in standard Shia and Sunni collections of hadith include, "There is no youth braver than Ali," "No-one but a believer loves Ali, and no-one but a hypocrite ([[Munafiq|Template:Transliteration]]) hates Ali," "I am from Ali, and Ali is from me, and he is the Template:Transliteration (Template:Literal translation) of every believer after me," "The truth revolves around him [Ali] wherever he goes," "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate ([[Bab (Shia Islam)|Template:Transliteration]])," "Ali is with the Quran and the Quran is with Ali. They will not separate until they return to me at the [paradisal] pool."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In SufismEdit
Ali is the common source of mystical and spiritual currents within both Sunni and Shia sects of Islam.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In particular, Ali is the spiritual head of some Sufi movements,Template:Sfn for Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad his esoteric knowledge and saintly authority,Template:Sfn which guide believers on their journey toward God.Template:Sfn Nearly all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being the Naqshbandis, who reach Muhammad through Abu Bakr.Template:Sfn
In Sunni IslamEdit
In Sunni Islam, Ali is venerated as a close companion of Muhammad,Template:Sfn a foremost authority on the Quran and Islamic law,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and the fountainhead of wisdom in Sunni spirituality.Template:Sfn When the prophet died in 632, Ali had his claims to leadership, perhaps in reference to the Ghadir Khumm,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn but he eventually accepted the temporal rule of the first three caliphs in the interest of Muslim unity.Template:Sfn Ali is portrayed in Sunni sources as a trusted advisor of the first three caliphs,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn while their conflicts with Ali are minimized,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn in line with the Sunni tendency to show accord among companions.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn As the fourth and final Rashidun caliph, Ali holds a particularly high status in Sunni Islam, although this doctrinal reverence for Ali is a recent development for which the prominent Sunni traditionist Ibn Hanbal (Template:Died in) is likely to be credited.Template:Sfn Sunni hierarchy of companions places Ali below his three predecessors and above those who fought against him.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn This ordering has required Sunni reinterpretation of those prophetic sayings that explicitly elevate Ali above all companions.Template:Sfn
In Shia IslamEdit
Ali takes center stage in Shia Islam:Template:Sfn The Arabic word shi'a itself is short for 'Template:Transliteration of Ali' (Template:Lit),Template:Sfn his name is incorporated into the daily call to prayer (Template:Transliteration),Template:Sfn and he is regarded as the foremost companion of Muhammad.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The defining doctrine of Shia Islam is that Ali was the rightful successor of Muhammad through divinely-ordained designation,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn which is primarily a reference to the Ghadir Khumm.Template:Sfn Ali is thought to have inherited the political and religious authority of Muhammad, even before his ascension to the caliphate in 656.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In particular, Ali's predecessors are regarded as illegitimate rulers and usurpers of his rights.Template:Sfn The all-encompassing bond of loyalty between Shia Muslims and their imams (and Muhammad in his capacity as imam) is known as Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn Ali is also thought to be endowed with the privilege of intercession on the Judgment Day.Template:Sfn Early on, some Shias even attributed divinity to Ali,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn but such extreme views were gradually rooted out of Shi'ism.Template:Sfn
In Shia belief, Ali also inherited the esoteric knowledge of Muhammad,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn for instance, in view of the prophetic hadith, "I [Muhammad] am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate."Template:Sfn Ali is thus regarded, after Muhammad, as the interpreter, Template:Transliteration, of the Quran and the sole authoritative source of its (esoteric) teachings.Template:Sfn Unlike Muhammad, however, Ali is not thought to have received divine revelation (Template:Transliteration), though he might have been guided by divine inspiration (Template:Transliteration).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Verse 21:73 of the Quran is sometimes cited here, "We made them imams, guiding by Our command, and We revealed (Template:Transliteration) to them the performance of good deeds, the maintenance of prayers, and the giving of [[Zakat|Template:Transliteration]] (alms), and they used to worship Us."Template:Sfn Shia Muslims also believe in the infallibility of Ali, as with Muhammad, that is, their divine protection from sins.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Here, the verse of purification is sometimes cited.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ali's words and deeds are therefore considered a model for the Shia community and a source for their religious injunctions.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In AlawismEdit
The Alawites venerate Ali, the first of the Twelve Imams, as the physical manifestation of God.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Even, the Alawite testimony of faith (shahada) translates as "there is no God but Ali".Template:Sfn The Alawite trinity envisions God as being composed of three distinct manifestations, Ma'na (meaning), Ism (Name) and Bab (Door); which together constitute an "indivisible trinity". Ma'na symbolises the "source and meaning of all things" in Alawite mythology. According to Alawite doctrines, Ma'na generated the Ism, which in turn built the Bab. These beliefs are closely tied to the Alawite doctrine of reincarnations of the trinity.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The final trinity of reincarnation in the Alawite trinity consists of Ali (Ma'na), Muhammad (Ism) and Salman the Persian (Bab). Alewites depict them as the sky, sun and moon respectively. Alawites deify Ali as the "last and supreme manifestation of God" who built the universe, attribute to him divine superiority, and believe that Ali created Muhammad and gave him the mission to spread Qur'anic teachings on earth.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In other religionsEdit
In the Druze faith, Ali is considered a "minor prophet," like Plato and Socrates.<ref>"Druze in Syria". Harvard Divinity School. Harvard University Press. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.</ref> Even though the faith originally developed out of the Isma'ili branch of Shia Islam, the Druze are not Muslims,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and do not accept the five pillars of Islam.Template:Sfn In Yarsanism, a religion founded by the Kurdish mystic Sultan Sahak, Ali is thought to be an incarnation of God,Template:Sfn and superior to Muhammad,Template:Sfn but their image as a Ghulat (Template:Lit) subsect of Shia Islam is incorrect.Template:Sfn
- Memorial stone Imam Reza.jpg
The verse of Template:Transliteration, possibly the most controversial statement in the Quran linked to Ali, is engraved on the margins of this memorial stone, dating to the Seljuk era
- Arabic caligraphic seal in Hagia Sophia.jpg
The word 'Ali' in Arabic calligraphy, inscribed in Hagia Sophia, Turkey
- Shi'i talismanic piece.jpg
Ali with his sons, nineteenth century Iranian tapestry
HistoriographyEdit
Much has been written about Ali in Islamic literature, second only to Muhammad.Template:Sfn However, much of this material is colored by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.Template:Sfn The primary sources about Ali are the Quran, hadiths, and other early Islamic works,Template:Sfn the most notable being The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays, attributed to a companion of Ali.Template:Sfn Such works were initially scarce, but this changed with the introduction of affordable paper in the Abbasid period. For instance, at least twenty-one monographs were composed on the Battle of Siffin between 750 and 950, thirteen of which were authored by the early historian Abu Mikhnaf (Template:Died in). Most of these monographs are not extant except through quotations in later collections, such as the tenth-century Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn In addition to numerous works authored by Muslims, the secondary sources about Ali include writings of Arab Christians, Hindus, and also works by Western scholars.Template:Sfn When writing about Ali, early Western scholars often dismissed as fabricated the reports gathered in later periods because their authors often advanced their own Sunni or Shia partisan views. For instance, L. Caetani (Template:Died in) often rejected the historical reports attributed to the pro-Ali Ibn Abbas and anti-Ali Aisha. Caetani instead preferred accounts reported without [[isnad|Template:Transliteration]] by early historians like Ibn Ishaq (Template:Died in). By contrast, W. Madelung (Template:Died in) argued that the tendentiousness of a report alone does not imply its fabrication. Madelung instead advocated for the authentication of historical reports on the basis of their compatibility with other events and figures.Template:Sfn
FootnotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
BooksEdit
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EncyclopediasEdit
Encyclopædia IranicaEdit
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Encyclopaedia of IslamEdit
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Encyclopaedia IslamicaEdit
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OthersEdit
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Journals and thesesEdit
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Further readingEdit
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