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Muslim world

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File:Islam percent population in each nation World Map Muslim data by Pew Research.svg
World percentage of Muslims by country

The terms Muslim world and Islamic world (Template:Langx) commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs, politics, and laws of Islam<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> or to societies in which Islam is practiced.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref name="BEWH">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> In a modern geopolitical sense, these terms refer to countries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="BEWH" /> The term Muslim-majority countries is an alternative often used for the latter sense.<ref name="Jones">Template:Cite book</ref>

The history of the Muslim world spans about 1,400 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, science, medicine, philosophy, law, economics and technology during the Islamic Golden Age. Muslims look for guidance to the Quran and believe in the prophetic mission of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, but disagreements on other matters have led to the appearance of different religious schools of thought and sects within Islam.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Islamic conquests, which culminated in the Caliphate being established across three continents (Asia, Africa, and Europe), enriched the Muslim world, achieving the economic preconditions for the emergence of this institution owing to the emphasis attached to Islamic teachings.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the modern era, most of the Muslim world came under European colonial domination. The nation states that emerged in the post-colonial era have adopted a variety of political and economic models, and they have been affected by secular as well as religious trends.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Template:As of, the combined GDP (nominal) of 50 Muslim majority countries was US$5.7 trillion.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Template:As of, they contributed 8% of the world's total.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 2020, the Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation which consists of 57 member states had a combined GDP(PPP) of US$ 24 trillion which is equal to about 18% of world's GDP or US$ 30 trillion with 5 OIC observer states which is equal to about 22% of the world's GDP. Some OIC member countries -Ivory Coast, Guyana, Gabon, Mozambique, Nigeria, Suriname, Togo and Uganda are not Muslim-majority.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

As of 2020, 1.8 billion or more than 25% of the world population are Muslims.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="pew1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> By the percentage of the total population in a region considering themselves Muslim, 91% in the Middle East-North Africa (MENA),<ref name="pewmena">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> 89% in Central Asia,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> 40% in Southeast Asia,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> 31% in South Asia,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> 30% in Sub-Saharan Africa,<ref name="pewssa">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> 25% in Asia, 1.4% in Oceania,<ref name="pewaspa">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> 6% in Europe,<ref name="peweur">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and 1% in the Americas.<ref name="pewame">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Most Muslims are of one of two denominations: Sunni Islam (87–90%)<ref name="Sunni-eb">* {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}

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|CitationClass=web }}</ref> {{#expr: 100 * 480/1570 round 0}}% of Muslims live in South Asia,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> the largest population of Muslims in the world;<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> {{#expr: 100 * 315/1571 round 0}}% in the Middle East–North Africa,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> where it is the dominant religion;<ref name="pewmuslim22">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa and West Africa (primarily in Nigeria).<ref name="pewmuslim32">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Muslims are the overwhelming majority in Central Asia,<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> make up half of the Caucasus,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and widespread in Southeast Asia.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> India has the largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran, and Egypt are home to the world’s second, fourth, sixth and seventh largest Muslim populations respectively. Sizeable Muslim communities are also found in the Americas, Russia, India, China, and Europe.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref name="pewmuslim122">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Islam is the fastest-growing major religion in the world partially due to their high birth rate,<ref name="NRP">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="USNewsLippman2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> according to the same study, religious switching has no impact on Muslim population, since the number of people who embrace Islam and those who leave Islam are roughly equal.<ref name="Pew29">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> China has the third largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries, while Russia has the fifth largest Muslim population. Nigeria has the largest Muslim population in Africa, while Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in Asia. Template:Islam

TerminologyEdit

The term has been documented as early as 1912 to encompass the influence of perceived pan-Islamic propaganda. The Times described Pan-Islamism as a movement with power, importance, and cohesion born in Paris, where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The correspondent's focus was on India: it would take too long to consider the progress made in various parts of the Muslim world. The article considered the position of the Amir, the effect of the Tripoli Campaign, Anglo-Russian action in Persia, and "Afghan Ambitions".<ref name="India, 1912">Pan-Islamism In India, FROM A CORRESPONDENT IN INDIA, Tuesday, 3 September 1912, The Times, Issue: 39994</ref>

In a modern geopolitical sense, the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' refer to countries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=BEWH/> Some scholars and commentators have criticised the term 'Muslim/Islamic world' and its derivative terms 'Muslim/Islamic country' as "simplistic" and "binary", since no state has a religiously homogeneous population (e.g. Egypt's citizens are c. 10% Christians), and in absolute numbers, there are sometimes fewer Muslims living in countries in which they make up the majority than in countries in which they form a minority.<ref name="Radical">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Hitchens"/><ref name="Geling">Template:Cite news</ref> Moreover, the idea of a uniform Muslim world is imagined. Emerging in popular discourse in the nineteenth century, imperialists used the term to emphasize the civilizational differences between east and west. In opposition to colonization some Muslims started using the term in attempts at providing a unified front against western imperialism.<ref name="book">Template:Cite book</ref> Hence, the term 'Muslim-majority countries' is often preferred in literature.<ref name="Jones"/>

HistoryEdit

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File:TabulaRogeriana upside-down.jpg
The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Al-Idrisi of Sicily in 1154, one of the most advanced ancient world maps. Al-Idrisi also wrote about the diverse Muslim communities found in various lands. Note: the map is here shown upside-down from the original to match current North/Up, South/Down map design

The history of the Islamic faith as a religion and social institution begins with its inception around 610 CE, when the Islamic prophet Muhammad, a native of Mecca, is believed by Muslims to have received the first revelation of the Quran, and began to preach his message.<ref name="Watt2003">Template:Cite book</ref> In 622 CE, facing opposition in Mecca, he and his followers migrated to Yathrib (now Medina), where he was invited to establish a new constitution for the city under his leadership.<ref name="Watt2003"/> This migration, called the Hijra, marks the first year of the Islamic calendar. By the time of his death, Muhammad had become the political and spiritual leader of Medina, Mecca, the surrounding region, and numerous other tribes of Arabia.<ref name="Watt2003"/>

After Muhammad died in 632, his successors (the Caliphs) continued to lead the Muslim community based on his teachings and guidelines of the Quran. The majority of Muslims consider the first four successors to be 'rightly guided' or Rashidun.Template:Citation needed The conquests of the Rashidun Caliphate helped to spread Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula, stretching from northwest India, across Central Asia, the Near East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees. The Arab Muslims were unable to conquer the entire Christian Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor during the Arab–Byzantine wars, however. The succeeding Umayyad Caliphate attempted two failed sieges of Constantinople in 674–678 and 717–718. Meanwhile, the Muslim community tore itself apart into the rivalling Sunni and Shia sects since the killing of caliph Uthman in 656, resulting in a succession crisis that has never been resolved.<ref>Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "islam. §7. Sektevorming". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum.</ref> The following First, Second and Third Fitnas and finally the Abbasid Revolution (746–750) also definitively destroyed the political unity of the Muslims, who have been inhabiting multiple states ever since.<ref>Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "Omajjaden §1. De Spaanse tak". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum.</ref> Ghaznavids' rule was succeeded by the Ghurid Empire of Muhammad of Ghor and Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad, whose reigns under the leadership of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji extended until the Bengal, where South Asian Islamic missionaries achieved their greatest success in terms of dawah and number of converts to Islam.<ref>The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pp. 227–228</ref><ref>Majumdar, R.C., History of Mediaeval Bengal, First published 1973, Reprint 2006, Tulshi Prakashani, Kolkata, Template:ISBN</ref>Template:Page needed Qutb ud-Din Aibak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanate,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> a successive series of dynasties that synthesized Indian civilization with the wider commercial and cultural networks of Africa and Eurasia, greatly increased demographic and economic growth in India and deterred Mongol incursion into the prosperous Indo-Gangetic Plain and enthroned one of the few female Muslim rulers, Razia Sultana.Template:Cn Notable major empires dominated by Muslims, such as those of the Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Gao Empire, Seljukids, largest contiguous Songhai Empire (15th-16th centuries) of Sahel, West Africa, southern North Africa and western Central Africa which dominated the centers of Islamic knowledge of Timbuktu, Djenne, Oualata and Gao, Ajuran, Adal and Warsangali in Somalia, Mughals in the Indian subcontinent (India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, etc.), Safavids in Persia and Ottomans in Anatolia, Massina Empire, Sokoto Caliphate of northern Nigeria, Toucouleur Empire, were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world.Template:Citation needed 19th-century colonialism and 20th-century decolonisation have resulted in several independent Muslim-majority states around the world, with vastly differing attitudes towards and political influences granted to, or restricted for, Islam from country to country.Template:Citation needed These have revolved around the question of Islam's compatibility with other ideological concepts such as secularism, nationalism (especially Arab nationalism and Pan-Arabism, as opposed to Pan-Islamism), socialism (see also Arab socialism and socialism in Iran), democracy (see Islamic democracy), republicanism (see also Islamic republic), liberalism and progressivism, feminism, capitalism and more.Template:Citation needed

Gunpowder empiresEdit

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Scholars often use the term Age of the Islamic Gunpowders to describe period the Safavid, Ottoman and Mughal states. Each of these three empires had considerable military exploits using the newly developed firearms, especially cannon and small arms, to create their empires.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> They existed primarily between the fourteenth and the late seventeenth centuries.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> During the 17th–18th centuries, when the Indian subcontinent was ruled by Mughal Empire's sixth ruler Muhammad Auranzgeb through sharia and Islamic economics,<ref>Islamic and European Expansion: The Forging of a Global Order, Michael Adas, Temple University Press (Philadelphia, PA), 1993.</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> India became the world's largest economy, valued 25% of world GDP.<ref>Maddison, Angus (2003): Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics, OECD Publishing, Template:ISBN, pages 259–261</ref>

  • Canonnier Persan. Auguste Wahlen. Moeurs, usages et costumes de tous les peuples du monde. 1843.jpg

    Safavid Empire's Zamburak.

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    The Mughal Army under the command of Islamist Aurangzeb recaptures Orchha in October 1635.

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    Gun-wielding Ottoman Janissaries in combat against the Knights of Saint John at the Siege of Rhodes in 1522.

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    Cannons and guns belonging to the Aceh Sultanate (in modern Indonesia).

Great DivergenceEdit

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The Great Divergence was the reason why European colonial powers militarily defeated preexisting Oriental powers like the Mughal Empire, starting from the wealthy Bengal Subah, Tipu Sultan's Kingdom of Mysore, the Ottoman Empire and many smaller states in the pre-modern Greater Middle East, and initiated a period known as 'colonialism'.<ref name="6KillerApps" />

ColonialismEdit

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File:World 1914 empires colonies territory.PNG
Map of colonial powers throughout the world in the year 1914 (note colonial powers in the pre-modern Muslim world).

Beginning with the 15th century, colonialism by European powers profoundly affected Muslim-majority societies in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Colonialism was often advanced by conflict with mercantile initiatives by colonial powers and caused tremendous social upheavals in Muslim-dominated societies.<ref name="auto">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

A number of Muslim-majority societies reacted to Western powers with zealotry and thus initiating the rise of Pan-Islamism; or affirmed more traditionalist and inclusive cultural ideals; and in rare cases adopted modernity that was ushered by the colonial powers.<ref name="ColonialismLegacies">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="auto"/>

The only Muslim-majority regions not to be colonized by the Europeans were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Turkey was one of the first colonial powers of the world with the Ottoman empire ruling several states for over 6 centuries.

Postcolonial eraEdit

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In the 20th century, the end of the European colonial domination has led to creation of a number of nation states with significant Muslim populations. These states drew on Islamic traditions to varying degree and in various ways in organizing their legal, educational and economic systems.<ref name="auto"/> The Times first documented the term "Muslim world" in 1912 when describing Pan-Islamism as a movement with power importance and cohesion born in Paris where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The article considered The position of the Amir; the effect of the Tripoli Campaign; Anglo-Russian action in Persia; and "Afghan Ambitions".<ref name="India, 1912"/>

A significant change in the Muslim world was the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922), to which the Ottoman officer and Turkish revolutionary statesman Mustafa Kemal Atatürk had an instrumental role in ending and replacing it with the Republic of Turkey, a modern, secular democracy<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> (see Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate).<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009"/> The secular values of Kemalist Turkey, which separated religion from the state with the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924,<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009"/> have sometimes been seen as the result of Western influence.Template:Citation needed

In the 21st century, after the September 11 attacks (2001) coordinated by the Wahhabi Islamist<ref name="commins172">Template:Cite book</ref> terrorist group<ref name="Dalacoura 2012">Template:Cite book</ref> Al-Qaeda<ref name="Dalacoura 2012"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Cite book</ref> against the United States, scholars considered the ramifications of seeking to understand Muslim experience through the framework of secular Enlightenment principles. Muhammad Atta, one of the 11 September hijackers, reportedly quoted from the Quran to allay his fears: "Fight them, and God will chastise them at your hands/And degrade them, and He will help you/Against them, and bring healing to the breasts of a people who believe", referring to the ummah, the community of Muslim believers, and invoking the imagery of the early warriors of Islam who lead the faithful from the darkness of jahiliyyah.<ref name=jahlil>Template:Cite book</ref>

By Sayyid Qutb's definition of Islam, the faith is "a complete divorce from jahiliyyah". He complained that American churches served as centers of community social life that were "very hard [to] distinguish from places of fun and amusement". For Qutb, Western society was the modern jahliliyyah. His understanding of the "Muslim world" and its "social order" was that, presented to the Western world as the result of practicing Islamic teachings, would impress "by the beauty and charm of true Islamic ideology". He argued that the values of the Enlightenment and its related precursor, the Scientific Revolution, "denies or suspends God's sovereignty on earth" and argued that strengthening "Islamic character" was needed "to abolish the negative influences of jahili life."<ref name=jahlil/>

Islam by countryEdit

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As the Muslim world came into contact with secular ideals, societies responded in different ways. Some Muslim-majority countries are secular. Azerbaijan became the first secular republic in the Muslim world, between 1918 and 1920, before it was incorporated into the Soviet Union.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="kazemzadeh">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Swietochowski2">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Failed verification Turkey has been governed as a secular state since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> By contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a monarchial semi-secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah, Ruhollah Khomeini.Template:Fact<ref>1906 Constitution of Imperial Iran: Article 1 – "The official religion of Persia is Islám, according to the orthodox Já'farí doctrine of the Ithna 'Ashariyya (Church of the Twelve Imáms), which faith 1 the Sháh of Persia must profess and promote."</ref>

Some countries have declared Islam as the official state religion. In those countries, the legal code is largely secular. Only personal status matters pertaining to inheritance and marriage are governed by Sharia law.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In some places, Muslims implement Islamic law, called sharia in Arabic. The Islamic law exists in a number of variations, called schools of jurisprudence. The Amman Message, which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world, recognized four Sunni schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali), two Shia schools (Ja'fari, Zaidi), the Ibadi school, and the Zahiri school.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Government and religionEdit

Islamic statesEdit

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State religionEdit

The following nineteen Muslim-majority states have endorsed Islam as their state religion, and though they may guarantee freedom of religion for citizens, do not declare a separation of state and religion: Template:Div col

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Secular statesEdit

Twenty-two Secular states in the Muslim world have declared separation between civil/government affairs and religion.

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OthersEdit

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Muslim-minority statesEdit

According to the Pew Research Center in 2015 there were 50 Muslim-majority countries, which are shown in the Government and religion section above in the article.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="pewmuslim5">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Apart from these, large Muslim populations exist in some countries where Muslims are a minority, and their Muslim communities are larger than many Muslim-majority nations:<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

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PoliticsEdit

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File:Benazir bhutto 1988.jpg
Benazir Bhutto, the former prime minister of Pakistan became the first woman elected to lead a Muslim-majority country.<ref>"Benazir Bhutto: Daughter of Tragedy" by Muhammad Najeeb, Hasan Zaidi, Saurabh Shulka and S. Prasannarajan, India Today, 7 January 2008</ref>

During much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early 21st century. The fast-growing interests of the Western world in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world in contemporary history.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

IslamismEdit

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DemographicsEdit

Template:See also More than 24.1% of the world's population is Muslim, with an estimated total of approximately 1.9 billion.<ref name="pewexsum">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="CIA Factbook">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="pewmuslim1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="pewmuslim7">Template:Citation</ref><ref name="pewmuslim4">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Muslims are the majority in 49 countries,<ref name="pewmaj">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> they speak hundreds of languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. The city of Karachi has the largest Muslim population in the world.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

GeographyEdit

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File:Santri Nusantara.jpg
Indonesia is currently the most populous Muslim-majority country.

Because the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' are disputed, since no country is homogeneously Muslim, and there is no way to determine at what point a Muslim minority in a country is to be considered 'significant' enough, there is no consensus on how to define the Muslim world geographically.<ref name="Radical"/><ref name="Hitchens">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} Template:Rp</ref><ref name="Jones" /> The only rule of thumb for inclusion which has some support, is that countries need to have a Muslim population of more than 50%.<ref name="Radical" /><ref name="Jones" />

In 2010, 73% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the majority, while 27% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the minority. India's Muslim population is the world's largest Muslim-minority population in the world (11% of the world's Muslim population).<ref name="auto1"/> Jones (2005) defines a "large minority" as being between 30% and 50%, which described nine countries in 2000, namely Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, North Macedonia, and Tanzania.<ref name="Jones" /> As of 2024, however, Nigeria has become a Muslim-majority country.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

ReligionEdit

IslamEdit

The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects. They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah ("faithful") should be governed, and the role of the imam. Sunnis believe that the true political successor of Muhammad according to the Sunnah should be selected based on ٍShura (consultation), as was done at the Saqifah which selected Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law, to be Muhammad's political but not his religious successor. Shia, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad designated his son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib as his true political as well as religious successor.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Better source needed

The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world, between 87 and 90%, are Sunni.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Shias and other groups make up the rest, about 10–13% of overall Muslim population. The countries with the highest concentration of Shia populations are: Iran – 89%,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Azerbaijan – 65%,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Iraq – 60%,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Bahrain – 60%, Yemen – 35%,<ref name="islamicweb.com">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Turkey – 10%,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>"Pew Forum on Religious & Public life". http://www.pewforum.org/ Template:Webarchive</ref> Lebanon – 27%, Syria – 13%, Afghanistan – 10%, Pakistan – 10%,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=":12">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="CIA">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="PRC">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Oxford">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="State">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and India – 10%.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Non-denominational Muslims make up a majority of the Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others): Albania (65%), Kyrgyzstan (64%), Kosovo (58%), Indonesia (56%), Mali (55%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (54%), Uzbekistan (54%), Azerbaijan (45%), Russia (45%), and Nigeria (42%).<ref name="Pew">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> They are found primarily in Central Asia.<ref name="Pew" /> Kazakhstan has the largest number of non-denominational Muslims, who constitute about 74% of the population.<ref name="Pew" /> Southeastern Europe also has a large number of non-denominational Muslims.<ref name="Pew" />

The Kharijite Muslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75% of the population.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

  • Muslims perform the Eid Al-Adha prayer at Eyup Sultan Mosque 2019-08-11 21.jpg

    Turkish Muslims at the Eyüp Sultan Mosque on Eid al-Adha

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    Shi'a Muslims in Iran commemorate Ashura

  • Saying Juma Namaz (Friday prayer for Muslims), Dhaka, Bangladesh NK.JPG

    Friday prayer for Sunni Muslims in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Islamic schools and branchesEdit

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File:Madhhab Map3.png
Islamic schools of law across the Muslim world

The first centuries of Islam gave rise to three major sects: Sunnis, Shi'as and Kharijites. Each sect developed distinct jurisprudence schools (madhhab) reflecting different methodologies of jurisprudence (fiqh).

The major Sunni madhhabs are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

The major Shi'a branches are Twelver (Imami), Ismaili (Sevener) and Zaidi (Fiver). Isma'ilism later split into Nizari Ismaili and Musta’li Ismaili, and then Mustaali was divided into Hafizi and Taiyabi Ismailis.<ref name="Öz1">Öz, Mustafa, Mezhepler Tarihi ve Terimleri Sözlüğü (The History of madh'habs and its terminology dictionary), Ensar Publications, Istanbul, 2011.</ref> It also gave rise to the Qarmatian movement and the Druze faith, although Druzes do not identify as Muslims.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Twelver Shiism developed Ja'fari jurisprudence whose branches are Akhbarism and Usulism, and other movements such as Alawites, Shaykism<ref name="Meymun">"Muhammad ibn Āliyy’ūl Cillī aqidah" of "Maymūn ibn Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī fiqh" (Sūlaiman Affandy, Al-Bākūrat’ūs Sūlaiman’īyyah – Family tree of the Nusayri Tariqat, pp. 14–15, Beirut, 1873.)</ref> and Alevism.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Shi'ism">Template:Cite book</ref>

Similarly, Kharijites were initially divided into five major branches: Sufris, Azariqa, Najdat, Adjarites and Ibadis.

Among these numerous branches, only Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali, Imamiyyah-Ja'fari-Usuli, Nizārī Ismā'īlī, Alevi,<ref>Alevi-Islam Religious Services – The message of İzzettin Doğan Template:Webarchive, Zafer Mah. Ahmet Yesevi Cad. No: 290, Yenibosna / Istanbul, Turkey.</ref> Zaydi, Ibadi, Zahiri, Alawite,Template:Cn Druze and Taiyabi communities have survived. In addition, new schools of thought and movements like Quranist Muslims and Ahmadi Muslims later emerged independently.

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    A Sufi dervish drums up the Friday afternoon crowd in Omdurman, Sudan

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    Druze dignitaries celebrating the Nabi Shu'ayb festival at the tomb of the prophet in Hittin

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    Ibadis living in the M'zab valley in Algerian Sahara

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    Zaydi Imams ruled in Yemen until 1962

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    Most of the inhabitants of the Hunza Valley in Pakistan are Ismaili Muslims

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    Children read Qur'an in Indonesia.

  • Grozny, Russia, Akhmad Kadyrov Mosque, Interiors, Praying.jpg

    People pray together in the mosque in Russia.

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    People move close to the Muslim food corner in China.

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    People praying in the Prophet's Mosque (Medina, Saudi Arabia)

Other religionsEdit

There are sizeable non-Muslim minorities in many Muslim-majority countries, includes, Christians, Jews, Hindus, Buddhists, Baháʼís, Druzes, Yazidis, Mandaeans, Yarsanis and Zoroastrians.

File:Surp Krikor Lusavoriç Armenian Church.jpg
Church and Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey.

The Muslim world is home to some of the world's most ancient Christian communities,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and some of the most important cities of the Christian world—including three of its five great patriarchates (Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of Islam,<ref>Hill, Donald. Islamic Science and Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. Template:ISBN, p. 4</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the Middle East and North Africa and other areas.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Pew Research Center estimates indicate that in 2010, more than 64 million Christians lived in countries with Muslim majorities (excluding Nigeria). The Pew Forum study finds that Indonesia (21.1 million) has the largest Christian population in the Muslim world, followed by Egypt, Chad and Kazakhstan.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> While according to Adly A. Youssef and Martyn Thomas, in 2004, there were around 30 million Christians who lived in countries with Muslim majorities, with the largest Christian population number lived in Indonesia, followed by Egypt.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Nigeria is divided almost evenly between Muslims and Christians, with more than 80 million Christians and Muslims.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 2018, the Jewish Agency estimated that around 27,000 Jews live in Arab and Muslim countries.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Jewish communities have existed across the Middle East and North Africa since the rise of Islam. Today, Jews residing in Muslim countries have been reduced to a small fraction of their former sizes,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> with the largest communities of Jews in Muslim countries exist in the non-Arab countries of Iran (9,500) and Turkey (14,500);<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> both, however, are much smaller than they historically have been.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2,000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1,000.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The number of Druze worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the Levant (primarily in Syria and Lebanon).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In 2010, the Pew Forum study finds that Bangladesh (13.5 million), Indonesia (4 million), Pakistan (3.3 million) and Malaysia (1.7 million) has a sizeable Hindu minorities. Malaysia (5 million) has the largest Buddhist population in the Muslim world.<ref name="auto1"/> Zoroastrians are the oldest remaining religious community in Iran.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

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    Egypt has one of the largest Christian population in the Muslim world<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

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    Bangladesh has the largest Hindu population in the Muslim world

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    Turkey has the largest Jewish population in the Muslim world<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Literacy and educationEdit

The literacy rate in the Muslim world varies. Azerbaijan is in second place in the Index of Literacy of World Countries. Some members such as Iran, Kuwait, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have over 97% literacy rates, whereas literacy rates are the lowest in Mali, Afghanistan, Chad and other parts of Africa. Several Muslim-majority countries, such as Turkey, Iran and Egypt have a high rate of citable scientific publications.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In 2015, the International Islamic News Agency reported that nearly 37% of the population of the Muslim world is unable to read or write, basing that figure on reports from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In Egypt, the largest Muslim-majority Arab country, the youth female literacy rate exceeds that for males.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Lower literacy rates are more prevalent in South Asian countries such as in Afghanistan and Pakistan, but are rapidly increasing.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In the Eastern Middle East, Iran has a high level of youth literacy at 98%,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> but Iraq's youth literacy rate has sharply declined from 85% to 57% during the American-led war and subsequent occupation.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country in the world, has a 99% youth literacy rate.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

A 2011 Pew Research Center showed that at the time about 36% of all Muslims had no formal schooling, with only 8% having graduate and post-graduate degrees.<ref name="Pew2016">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The highest of years of schooling among Muslim-majority countries found in Uzbekistan (11.5), Kuwait (11.0) and Kazakhstan (10.7).<ref name="Pew2016" /> In addition, the average of years of schooling in countries in which Muslims are the majority is 6.0 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (7.7 years of schooling).<ref name="Pew2016" /> In the youngest age (25–34) group surveyed, Young Muslims have the lowest average levels of education of any major religious group, with an average of 6.7 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (8.6 years of schooling).<ref name="Pew2016" /> The study found that Muslims have a significant amount of gender inequality in educational attainment, since Muslim women have an average of 4.9 years of schooling, compared to an average of 6.4 years of schooling among Muslim men.<ref name="Pew2016" />

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    Young school girls in Paktia Province of Afghanistan.

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    A primary classroom in Niger.

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    Schoolgirls in Gaza lining up for class, 2009.

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    Medical students of anatomy, before an exam in moulage, Iran

RefugeesEdit

File:Rohingya Refugees Camp in 2019.29.jpg
Muslim Rohingya refugees in Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh.

According to the UNHCR, Muslim-majority countries hosted 18 million refugees by the end of 2010.Template:Citation needed

Since then Muslim-majority countries have absorbed refugees from recent conflicts, including the uprising in Syria.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In July 2013, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded 1.8 million.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In Asia, an estimated 625,000 refugees from Rakhine, Myanmar, mostly Muslim, had crossed the border into Bangladesh since August 2017.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

CultureEdit

Throughout history, Muslim cultures have been diverse ethnically, linguistically and regionally.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> According to M. M. Knight, this diversity includes diversity in beliefs, interpretations and practices and communities and interests. Knight says perception of Muslim world among non-Muslims is usually supported through introductory literature about Islam, mostly present a version as per scriptural view which would include some prescriptive literature and abstracts of history as per authors own point of views, to which even many Muslims might agree, but that necessarily would not reflect Islam as lived on the ground, 'in the experience of real human bodies'.<ref name=":02">Template:Cite book</ref>

Classical cultureEdit

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The term "Islamic Golden Age" has been attributed to a period in history during which science, economic development and cultural works in most of the Muslim-dominated world flourished.<ref name=Saliba>George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, pp. 245, 250, 256–7. New York University Press, Template:ISBN.</ref><ref name=King>Template:Cite journal</ref> The age is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786–809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world sought to translate and gather all the known world's knowledge into Arabic,<ref>Medieval India, NCERT, Template:ISBN</ref><ref>Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pg 26–38 Template:ISBN</ref> and to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Mongol invasions and the Siege of Baghdad in 1258.<ref name="Tahir Abbas">Template:Cite book</ref> The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and hadiths, such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr," that stressed the value of knowledge. The major Islamic capital cities of Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba became the main intellectual centers for science, philosophy, medicine, and education.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> During this period, the Muslim world was a collection of cultures; they drew together and advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Greek, Roman, Persian, Chinese, Vedic, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations.<ref name="Vartan">Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 26–38 Template:ISBN</ref>

CeramicsEdit

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File:Chess Set MET DP170393.jpg
A Seljuq, shatranj (chess) set, glazed fritware, 12th century.

Between the 8th and 18th centuries, the use of ceramic glaze was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaborate pottery.<ref>Mason (1995) p. 1</ref> Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another contribution was the development of fritware, originating from 9th-century Iraq.<ref>Mason (1995) p. 5</ref> Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Old world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550).<ref>Mason (1995) p. 7</ref>

LiteratureEdit

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The best known work of fiction from the Islamic world is One Thousand and One Nights, a compilation of folk tales from Sanskrit, Persian, and later Arabian fables. The concept had been influenced by a pre-Islamic Persian prototype Hezār Afsān (Thousand Fables) that relied on particular Indian elements.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> It reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.<ref name="arabianNights">Grant & Clute, p. 51</ref> This work has been very influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.<ref>L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p. 10 Template:ISBN</ref> Imitations were written, especially in France.<ref name="arabianNights2">Grant & Clute, p 52</ref> Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor and Ali Baba.Template:Citation needed

An example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love. Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the national epic of Greater Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story.

Ibn Tufayl (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel.Template:Citation needed Ibn Tufail wrote the first Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to Al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus.Template:Citation needed Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel.<ref>Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher Template:Webarchive, Encyclopedia of Islamic World).</ref><ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288) Template:Webarchive", pp. 95–101, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame.</ref>

Theologus Autodidactus,<ref>Muhammad b. Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufayl. Philosophus autodidactus, sive Epistola Abi Jaafar ebn Tophail de Hai ebn Yokdhan Template:Webarchive: in qua ostenditur, quomodo ex inferiorum contemplatione ad superiorum notitiam ratio humana ascendere possit. E Theatro Sheldoniano, excudebat Joannes Owens, 1700.</ref><ref>Ala-al-din abu Al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi. The Theologus autodidactus of Ibn al-Nafīs. Clarendon P., 1968</ref> written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288),<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation, futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection, and the afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. Ibn al-Nafis' fiction explained Islamic religious teachings via science and Islamic philosophy.<ref name=Roubi>Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher Template:Webarchive, Encyclopedia of Islamic World).</ref> Translations of Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus appeared in Latin (1671), English (1708), German, and Dutch. These European-language translations may have later inspired Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe<ref>Cyril Glasse (2001), New Encyclopaedia of Islam, p. 202, Rowman Altamira, Template:ISBN.</ref> and Robert Boyle's The Aspiring Naturalist.<ref name="Toomer-222" />

PhilosophyEdit

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File:BAE09705.jpg
Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Muslim polymath from Al-Andalus.

One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture."<ref name="RoutledgeEoP">"Islamic Philosophy" Template:Webarchive, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1998)</ref> Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims.<ref name="RoutledgeEoP" /> The Persian scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037) had more than 450 books attributed to him. His writings were concerned with various subjects, most notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbook The Canon of Medicine was used as the standard text in European universities for centuries. He also wrote The Book of Healing, an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Another figure from the Islamic Golden Age, Avicenna, also founded his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Yet another influential philosopher who had an influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. His philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture,<ref>Russell (1994), pp. 224–62,</ref> condition of possibility, materialism,<ref>Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān, pp. 38–46, Brill Publishers, Template:ISBN.</ref> and Molyneux's problem.<ref>Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufail and Léon Gauthier (1981), Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan, p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée.</ref> European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke,<ref>Russell (1994), pp. 224–39</ref> Gottfried Leibniz,<ref name="Wainwright">Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts Template:Webarchive, The Guardian, 22 March 2003.</ref> Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens,<ref>Russell (1994) p. 227</ref> George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers,<ref>Russell (1994), p. 247</ref> and Samuel Hartlib.<ref name=Toomer-222>G. J. Toomer (1996), Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 222, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN.</ref>

Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school of Transcendent theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Other influential Muslim philosophers include Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Al-Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn al-Nafis, a pioneer of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the philosophy of history.<ref name=Akhtar>S.R.W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3). https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol-12-no3/islamic-concept-knowledge-sayyid-wahid-akhtar</ref>

SciencesEdit

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Sciences

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    An illustration from al-Biruni's astronomical works, explains the different phases of the moon.

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    The Elephant Clock was one of the most famous inventions of Al-Jazari.

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    "Cubic equations and intersections of conic sections", of Omar Khayyam.

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    Lagâri Hasan Çelebi's rocket flight depicted in a 17th-century engraving.

Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Jim Al-Khalili stated in 2009 that Ibn al-Haytham is 'often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".'<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> al-Khwarzimi's invented the log base systems that are being used today, he also contributed theorems in trigonometry as well as limits.<ref>Plofker, Kim (2009), Mathematics in India: 500 BCE–1800 CE, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Template:ISBN.</ref> Recent studies show that it is very likely that the Medieval Muslim artists were aware of advanced decagonal quasicrystal geometry (discovered half a millennium later in the 1970s and 1980s in the West) and used it in intricate decorative tilework in the architecture.<ref>Peter J. Lu, Harvard's Office of News and Public Affairs Template:Webarchive</ref>

Muslim physicians contributed to the field of medicine, including the subjects of anatomy and physiology: such as in the 15th-century Persian work by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn al-Faqih Ilyas entitled Tashrih al-badan (Anatomy of the body) which contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems; or in the work of the Egyptian physician Ibn al-Nafis, who proposed the theory of pulmonary circulation. Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine remained an authoritative medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (also known as Abulcasis) contributed to the discipline of medical surgery with his Kitab al-Tasrif ("Book of Concessions"), a medical encyclopedia which was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries. Other medical advancements came in the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy.<ref>Turner, H. (1997) pp. 136–38</ref>

Some most famous scientists from the medieval Islamic world include Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Farabi, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Biruni, Avicenna, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and Ibn Khaldun.Template:Citation needed

TechnologyEdit

File:Illustration of al-Hariri Maqamat spinning wheel.jpg
The Spinning wheel is believed to have been invented in the medieval era (of what is now the Greater Middle East), it is considered to be an important device that contributed greatly to the advancement of the Industrial Revolution. (scene from Al-Maqamat, painted by al-Wasiti 1237)

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In technology, the Muslim world adopted papermaking from China.<ref name=Lucas /> The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via predominantly Islamic countries.<ref>Arming the Periphery. Emrys Chew, 2012. p. 1823.</ref>

Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using new technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along which Muslim-majority countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice, Genoa and Catalonia (see also: Indo-Mediterranean). The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Islamic states between China and Europe. The emergence of major economic empires with technological resources after the conquests of Timur (Tamerlane) and the resurgence of the Timurid Renaissance include the Mali Empire and the Bengal Sultanate in particular, a major global trading nation in the world, described by the Europeans to be the "richest country to trade with".<ref>Nanda, J. N (2005). Bengal: the unique state. Concept Publishing Company. p. 10. 2005. Template:ISBN. Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.</ref>

Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power and wind power.<ref>Ahmad Y. al-Hassan (1976). Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, pp. 34–35. Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo.</ref> The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, paper mills, hullers, sawmills, ship mills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.<ref name="Lucas">Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), pp. 1–30 [10].</ref> Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.<ref name="Hassan">Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering Template:Webarchive</ref> Such advances made it possible for industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution, particularly from the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal and Tipu Sultan's Kingdom, through the conquests of the East India Company.<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), pp. 1–30.</ref>

ArtsEdit

The term "Islamic art and architecture" denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations.<ref>Ettinghausen (2003), p. 3</ref><ref>"Islamic Art and Architecture", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)</ref>

ArchitectureEdit

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Islamic architecture

AniconismEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} No Islamic visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because it is believed that such artistic depictions may lead to idolatry. Muslims describe God by the names and attributes that, according to Islam, he revealed to his creation. All but one sura of the Quran begins with the phrase "In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful". Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited. Such aniconism and iconoclasm<ref name=MUSLIM-ICONOCLASM>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology.

ArabesqueEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as arabesque. Such designs are highly nonrepresentational, as Islam forbids representational depictions as found in pre-Islamic pagan religions. Despite this, there is a presence of depictional art in some Muslim societies, notably the miniature style made famous in Persia and under the Ottoman Empire which featured paintings of people and animals, and also depictions of Quranic stories and Islamic traditional narratives. Another reason why Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence, indivisible and infinite nature of God, an objective achieved by arabesque.<ref name="JAACMadden">Madden (1975), pp. 423–30</ref> Islamic calligraphy is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in the form of Quranic verses. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts, which can be found adorning the walls and domes of mosques, the sides of minbars, and so on.<ref name="JAACMadden" />

Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.<ref>Tonna, Jo (1990). "The Poetics of Arab-Islamic Architecture", Muqarnas BRILL, 7, pp. 182–97</ref> The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock mosque, and recurring even up until the 17th century with the Taj Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into European architecture.<ref>Grabar, Oleg (2006), "Islamic art and beyond". Ashgate. Vol 2, p. 87</ref>

  • Interlaced-Triangles quasi-Arabesque Brunnian-link.svg

    Example of an Arabesque

  • Brunnian-link-12crossings-nonBorromean-quasi-Arabesque.svg

    Example of an Arabesque

  • Interlaced-Triangles Brunnian-link alternate.svg

    Example of an Arabesque

GirihEdit

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  • Girih tiles.svg

    Girih tiles

  • Darbeimam subdivision rule.svg

    The subdivision rule used to generate the Girih pattern on the spandrel.

  • Girih compass straightedge example.svg

    Girih pattern that can be drawn with compass and straight edge.

Islamic calligraphyEdit

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  • Kufic Quran, sura 7, verses 86-87.jpg

    Kufic script from an early Qur'an manuscript, 7th century. (Surah 7: 86–87)

  • Bismillah.svg

    Bismallah calligraphy.

  • Seven sleepers islam.jpg

    Islamic calligraphy represented for amulet of sailors in the Ottoman Empire.

  • Shiite Calligraphy symbolising Ali as Tiger of God.svg

    Islamic calligraphy praising Ali.

  • Planets by ibrahimabutouq.jpg

    Modern Islamic calligraphy representing various planets.

CalendarEdit

Two calendars are used all over the Muslim world. One is a lunar calendar that is most widely used among Muslims. The other one is a solar calendar officially used in Iran and Afghanistan.

Islamic lunar calendarEdit

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Solar Hijri calendarEdit

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WomenEdit

Template:See also According to Riada Asimovic Akyol, while Muslim women's experiences differ a lot by location and personal situations such as family upbringing, class and education;<ref name=":1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the difference between culture and religions is often ignored by community and state leaders in many of the Muslim majority countries.<ref name=":1" /> The key issue in the Muslim world regarding gender issues is that religious texts constructed in highly patriarchal environments and based on biological essentialism are still valued highly in Islam, hence views emphasizing on men's superiority in unequal gender roles are widespread among many conservative Muslims (men and women).<ref name=":1" /> Orthodox Muslims often believe that rights and responsibilities of women in Islam are different from that of men and sacrosanct since assigned by the God.<ref name=":1" /> According to Asma Barlas, patriarchal behaviour among Muslims is based in an ideology which jumbles sexual and biological differences with gender dualisms and inequality. Modernist discourse of liberal progressive movements like Islamic feminism have been revisiting hermeneutics of feminism in Islam in terms of respect for Muslim women's lives and rights.<ref name=":1" /> Riada Asimovic Akyol further says that equality for Muslim women needs to be achieved through self-criticism.<ref name=":1" />

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    A Kazakh wedding ceremony in a mosque

  • COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een marabout gaat voor in het gebed tijdens een naamgevingsfeest TMnr 20018270.jpg

    A group of marabouts – West African religious leaders and teachers of the Quran.

  • Muslim girls at Istiqlal Mosque jakarta.png

    Muslim girls at Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta

  • Chadian delegation.jpg

    A tribal delegation in Chad

  • Trio of Muslim Girls in Street - Srimangal - Sylhet Division - Bangladesh (12950725824).jpg

    Muslim girls walking for school in Bangladesh

See alsoEdit

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ReferencesEdit

NotesEdit

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CitationsEdit

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SourcesEdit

External linksEdit

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