Islamic calligraphy

File:Folios 1b-2a from Part 15 of a 30-part Qur’an copied by Ya'qut al-Musta'simi in Baghdad 1282-1283 AD (681 AH) (cropped).jpg

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Template:Arab culture Template:Calligraphy Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice of penmanship and calligraphy, in the languages which use Arabic alphabet or the alphabets derived from it. It is a highly stylized and structured form of handwriting that follows artistic conventions and is often used for Islamic religious texts, architecture, and decoration.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It includes Arabic, Persian, Ottoman, and Urdu calligraphy.<ref name="Bloom">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="ens">Chapman, Caroline (2012). Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture, Template:ISBN</ref> It is known in Arabic as Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), literally meaning 'line', 'design', or 'construction'.<ref name="typography">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to the Qur'an, as chapters and verses from the Qur'an are a common and almost universal text upon which Islamic calligraphy is based. Although artistic depictions of people and animals are not explicitly forbidden in the Qur'an, Islamic traditions have often limited figural representation in Islamic religious texts in order to avoid idolatry. Some scholars argue that Kufic script was developed by the late 7th century in Kufa, Iraq, from which it takes its name. This early style later evolved into several forms, including floral, foliated, plaited or interlaced, bordered, and square Kufic. In the ancient world, though, artists sometimes circumvented aniconic prohibitions by creating intricate calligraphic compositions that formed shapes and figures using tiny script. Calligraphy was a valued art form, and was regarded as both an aesthetic and moral pursuit. An ancient Arabic proverb illustrates this point by emphatically stating that "Purity of writing is purity of the soul."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Beyond religious contexts, Islamic calligraphy is widely used in secular art, architecture, and decoration.<ref>Blair, Sheila S. (Spring 2003). "The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of an Unwieldy Field". The Art Bulletin. 85: 152–184</ref> Its prominence in Islamic art is not solely due to religious constraints on figurative imagery, but rather reflects the central role of writing and the written word in Islamic culture.<ref>Allen, Terry (1988). Five Essays on Islamic Art. Sebastopol, CA: Solipsist Press. pp. 17–37. Template:ISBN.</ref> Islamic calligraphy evolved primarily from two major styles: Kufic and Naskh, with numerous regional and stylistic variations. In the modern era, Arabic and Persian calligraphy have influenced modern art, particularly in the post-colonial Middle East, and have also inspired the fusion style known as calligraffiti.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Instruments and media

The traditional instrument of the Islamic calligrapher is the qalam, a pen normally made of dried reed or bamboo. The ink is often in colour and chosen so that its intensity can vary greatly, creating dynamism and movement in the letter forms. Some styles are often written using a metallic-tip pen.

File:Niebuhr Beschreibung von Arabien Tab XIII.png

Five principal Arabic calligraphic cursive styles:
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Islamic calligraphy can be applied to a wide range of decorative mediums other than paper, such as tiles, vessels, carpets, and stone.<ref name=ens/> Before the advent of paper, papyrus and parchment were used for writing. During the 9th century, an influx of paper from China revolutionized calligraphy. Libraries in the Muslim world regularly contained hundreds and even thousands of books.<ref name=Bloom/>Template:Rp

For centuries, the art of writing has fulfilled a central iconographic function in Islamic art.<ref>Tabbaa, Yasser (1991). "The Transformation of Arabic Writing: Part I, Qur'ānic Calligraphy". Ars Orientalis. 21: 119–148.</ref> Although the academic tradition of Islamic calligraphy began in Baghdad, the centre of the Islamic empire during much of its early history, it eventually spread as far as India and Spain.

Coins were another support for calligraphy. Beginning in 692, the Islamic caliphate reformed the coinage of the Near East by replacing Byzantine Christian imagery with Islamic phrases inscribed in Arabic. This was especially true for dinars, or gold coins of high value. Generally, the coins were inscribed with quotes from the Qur'an.

By the tenth century, the Persians, who had converted to Islam, began weaving inscriptions onto elaborately patterned silks. So precious were textiles featuring Arabic text that Crusaders brought them to Europe as prized possessions. A notable example is the Suaire de Saint-Josse, used to wrap the bones of St. Josse in the Abbey of St. Josse-sur-Mer, near Caen in north-western France.<ref name=Bloom />Template:Rp

As Islamic calligraphy is highly venerated, most works follow examples set by well-established calligraphers, with the exception of secular or contemporary works. In the Islamic tradition, calligraphers underwent extensive training in three stages, including the study of their teacher's models, in order to be granted certification.<ref name=":1">Roxburgh, David J. (2008). ""The Eye is Favored for Seeing the Writing's Form": On the Sensual and the Sensuous in Islamic Calligraphy". Muqarnas. 25: 275–298</ref>

Styles

File:A section of the Koran - Google Art Project.jpg

9th century Qur'an, an early kufic example from the Abbasid period

File:Bowl with Kufic Calligraphy, 10th century.jpg

Bowl with Kufic Calligraphy, 10th century. Brooklyn Museum

Kufic

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The Kufic style emphasizes rigid and angular strokes, it developed alongside the Naskh script in the 7th century.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Schimmel, Annemarie (1984). Calligraphy and Islamic Culture. New York: New York University Press. p. 4. Template:ISBN.</ref> Although some scholars dispute this, Kufic script was supposedly developed around the end of the 7th century in Kufa, Iraq, from which it takes its name.<ref name=qalam-kufic>Kvernen, Elizabeth (2024). "Kufic", calligraphyqalam.com.</ref><ref>Schimmel, Annemarie (1984). Calligraphy and Islamic Culture. New York: New York University Press. p. 3. Template:ISBN.</ref> The style later developed into several varieties, including floral, foliated, plaited or interlaced, bordered, and square kufic. Due to its straight and orderly style of lettering, Kufic was frequently used in ornamental stone carving as well as on coins.<ref>Ul Wahab, Zain; Yasmin Khan, Romana (30 June 2016). "The Element of Mural Art and Mediums in Potohar Region". Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan. Vol. 53; No. 1 – Nexis Uni.</ref> It was the main script used to copy the Qur'an from the 8th to 10th century and went out of general use in the 12th century when the flowing naskh style become more practical. However, it continued to be used as a decorative element to contrast superseding styles.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

There was no set rules of using the Kufic script; the only common feature is the angular, linear shapes of the characters. Due to the lack of standardization of early Kufic, the script differs widely between regions, ranging from very square and rigid forms to flowery and decorative ones.<ref name=qalam-kufic/>

Common varieties include<ref name=qalam-kufic/> square Kufic, a technique known as banna'i.<ref name="BloomBlair2009">Template:Cite book</ref> Contemporary calligraphy using this style is also popular in modern decorations.

Decorative Kufic inscriptions are often imitated into pseudo-kufics in Middle age and Renaissance Europe. Pseudo-kufics is especially common in Renaissance depictions of people from the Holy Land. The exact reason for the incorporation of pseudo-Kufic is unclear. It seems that Westerners mistakenly associated 13th-14th century Middle Eastern scripts with systems of writing used during the time of Jesus, and thus found it natural to represent early Christians in association with them.<ref>Mack, Rosamond E. Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300–1600, University of California Press, 2001 Template:ISBN</ref>

Naskh

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File:Copied by Mehmed Şevki Efendi - Qur’an - Google Art Project.jpg

Muraqqa script by Mehmed Şevkî Efendi of the two intro pages of the Quran

File:Folio from a Qur'an (Mamluk dynasty).jpg

Muhaqqaq script in a 14th-century Qur'an from the Mamluk dynasty

The use of cursive scripts coexisted with Kufic, and historically cursive was commonly used for informal purposes.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> Naskh first appeared within the first century of the Islamic calendar.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Naskh translates to "copying", as it became the standard for transcribing books and manuscripts.<ref>Blair, Sheila S. (2006). Islamic Calligraphy. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 158, 165. Template:ISBN.</ref> The script is the most ubiquitous among other styles, used in the Qur'an, official decrees, and private correspondence.<ref name="LOCFragments">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It became the basis of modern Arabic print.

Kufic is commonly believed to predate naskh, but historians have traced the two scripts as coexisting long before their codification by ibn Muqla, as the two served different purposes.<ref name="MuslimCalligraphy">Template:Cite journal</ref> Kufi was used primarily in decoration, while Naskh served for everyday scribal use.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Thuluth

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File:Basmalah-1wm.svg

A digital rendering of the Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region, Thuluth script

Thuluth was developed during the 15th century and slowly refined by Ottoman Calligraphers including Mustafa Râkim, Shaykh Hamdallah, and others, till it became what it is today. Letters in this script have long vertical lines with broad spacing. The name, meaning "one third", may possibly be a reference to the x-height, which is one-third of the 'alif, or to the fact that the pen used to write the vowels and ornaments is one third the width of that used in writing the letters.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Reqāʿ

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Reqāʿ is a handwriting style similar to thuluth. It first appeared in the 10th century. The shape is simple with short strokes and small flourishes. Yaqut al-Musta'simi was one of the calligraphers who employed this style.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Arab, Ibn al-Bawwab is actually believed to have created this script.

Muhaqqaq

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Muhaqqaq is a majestic style used by accomplished calligraphers, and is a variation of thuluth. Along with thuluth, it was considered one of the most beautiful scripts, as well as one of the most difficult to execute. Muhaqqaq was commonly used during the Mamluk era, but its use became largely restricted to short phrases, such as the basmallah, from the 18th century onward.<ref>Mansour, Nassar (2011). Sacred Script: Muhaqqaq in Islamic Calligraphy. New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd. Template:ISBN</ref>

Regional styles

File:Miremad-1.jpg

Nasta'liq calligraphy of a Persian poem by Mir Emad Hassani, perhaps the most celebrated Persian calligrapher

With the spread of Islam, the Arabic script was established in a vast geographic area with many regions developing their own unique style. From the 14th century onward, other cursive styles began to develop in Turkey, Persia, and China.<ref name="LOCFragments" />

1. Maghrebi scripts developed from Kufic letters in the Maghreb (North Africa) and al-Andalus (Iberia), Maghrebi scripts are traditionally written with a pointed tip (القلم المذبب), producing a line of even thickness. Within the Maghrebi family, there are different styles including the cursive mujawher and the ceremonial mabsut.
   1. Sudani scripts developed in Biled as-Sudan (the West African Sahel) and can be considered a subcategory of Maghrebi scripts
2. Diwani is a cursive style of Arabic calligraphy developed during the reign of the early Ottoman Turks in the 16th and early 17th centuries. It was invented by Housam Roumi, and reached its height of popularity under Süleyman I the Magnificent (1520–1566).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> Spaces between letters are often narrow, and lines ascend upwards from right to left. Larger variations called djali are filled with dense decorations of dots and diacritical marks in the space between, giving it a compact appearance. Diwani is difficult to read and write due to its heavy stylization and became the ideal script for writing court documents as it ensured confidentiality and prevented forgery.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

1. Nasta'liq is a cursive style originally devised to write the Persian language for literary and non-Qur'anic works.<ref name=qalam-nastaliq>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> Nasta'liq is thought to be a later development of the naskh and the earlier ta'liq script used in Iran.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Quite rapidly gaining popularity as a script in South Asia. The name ta'liq means "hanging", and refers to the slightly sloped quality of lines of text in this script. Letters have short vertical strokes with broad and sweeping horizontal strokes. The shapes are deep, hook-like, and have high contrast.<ref name=qalam-nastaliq/> A variant called Shikasteh was developed in the 17th century for more formal contexts.

1. Sini is a style developed in China. The shape is greatly influenced by Chinese calligraphy, using a horsehair brush instead of the standard reed pen. A famous modern calligrapher in this tradition is Hajji Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang.<ref>"Browse Gallery", hajinoordeen.com.</ref>

Modern

In the post-colonial era, artists working in North Africa and the Middle East transformed Arabic calligraphy into a modern art movement, known as the Hurufiyya movement.<ref name=":0">Flood, Necipoğlu (2017). A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume II. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1294. Template:ISBN. Template:OCLC.</ref> Artists working in this style use calligraphy as a graphic element within contemporary artwork.<ref>Mavrakis, N., "The Hurufiyah Art Movement in Middle Eastern Art" Template:Webarchive, McGill Journal of Middle Eastern Studies Blog</ref><ref>Tuohy, Andy, Masters, Christopher, A–Z Great Modern Artists, Hachette UK, 2015, p. 56</ref>

The term, hurufiyya is derived from the Arabic term, harf for letter. Traditionally, the term was charged with Sufi intellectual and esoteric meaning.<ref name=":0" /> It is an explicit reference to a medieval system of teaching involving political theology and lettrism. In this theology, letters were seen as primordial signifiers and manipulators of the cosmos.<ref>Mir-Kasimov, O., Words of Power: Hurufi Teachings Between Shi'ism and Sufism in Medieval Islam, I.B. Tauris and the Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2015</ref>

Hurufiyya artists blended Western art concepts with an artistic identity and sensibility drawn from their own culture and heritage. These artists integrated Islamic visual traditions, especially calligraphy, and elements of modern art into syncretic contemporary compositions.<ref>Lindgren, A. and Ross, S., The Modernist World, Routledge, 2015, p. 495; Mavrakis, N., "The Hurufiyah Art Movement in Middle Eastern Art," McGill Journal of Middle Eastern Studies Blog, Online: https://mjmes.wordpress.com/2013/03/08/article-5/ Template:Webarchive; Tuohy, A. and Masters, C., A–Z Great Modern Artists, Hachette UK, 2015, p. 56</ref> Although hurufiyyah artists struggled to find their own individual dialogue within the context of nationalism, they also worked towards an aesthetic that transcended national boundaries and represented a broader affiliation with an Islamic identity.<ref name=":0" />

The hurufiyya artistic style as a movement most likely began in North Africa Template:Circa with the work of Ibrahim el-Salahi.<ref name=":0" /> However, the use of calligraphy in modern artworks appears to have emerged independently in various Islamic states. Artists working in this were often unaware of other hurufiyya artists's works, allowing for different manifestations of the style to emerge in different regions.<ref>Dadi. I., "Ibrahim El Salahi and Calligraphic Modernism in a Comparative Perspective," South Atlantic Quarterly, 109 (3), 2010, pp. 555–576, {{#invoke:doi|main}}; Flood, F.B. and Necipoglu, G. (eds) A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture, Wiley, 2017, p. 1294</ref> In Sudan, for instance, artworks include both Islamic calligraphy and West African motifs.<ref>Flood, Necipoğlu (2017). A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture. Vol. II. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1298–1299. Template:ISBN. Template:OCLC.</ref>

File:Ceiling of Frere Hall.jpg

The Roof of Frere Hall, Karachi, Pakistan, Template:Circa. Mural by artist, Sadequain Naqqash integrates calligraphy elements into a modern artwork.

The hurufiyya art movement was not confined to painters and included artists working in a variety of media.<ref>Mavrakis, N., "The Hurufiyah Art Movement in Middle Eastern Art," McGill Journal of Middle Eastern Studies Blog, Online: https://mjmes.wordpress.com/2013/03/08/article-5/; Tuohy, A. and Masters, C., A–Z Great Modern Artists, Hachette UK, 2015, p. 56; Dadi. I., "Ibrahim El Salahi and Calligraphic Modernism in a Comparative Perspective," South Atlantic Quarterly, 109 (3), 2010, pp. 555–576, {{#invoke:doi|main}}</ref> One example is the Jordanian ceramicist, Mahmoud Taha who combined the traditional aesthetics of calligraphy with skilled craftsmanship. Although not affiliated with the hurufiyya movement, the contemporary artist Shirin Neshat integrates Arabic text into her black-and-white photography, creating contrast and duality. In Iraq, the movement was known as Al Bu'd al Wahad (or the One Dimension Group)",<ref>"Shaker Hassan Al Said," Darat al Funum, Online; Flood, Necipoğlu (2017). A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture. Vol. II. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1294. Template:ISBN. Template:OCLC.</ref> and in Iran, it was known as the Saqqa-Khaneh movement.<ref name=":0" />

Western art has influenced Arabic calligraphy in other ways, with forms such as calligraffiti, which is the use of calligraphy in public art to make politico-social messages or to ornament public buildings and spaces.<ref>Grebenstein, M., Calligraphy Bible: A Complete Guide to More Than 100 Essential Projects and Techniques, 2012, p. 5</ref> Notable Islamic calligraffiti artists include: Yazan Halwani active in Lebanon<ref>Alabaster, Olivia. "I like to write Beirut as it's the city that gave us everything" Template:Webarchive, The Daily Star, Beirut, 9 February 2013</ref>, el Seed working in France and Tunisia, and Caiand A1one in Tehran.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

In 2017 the Sultanate of Oman unveiled the Mushaf Muscat, an interactive calligraphic Quran following supervision and support from the Omani Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs, a voting member of the Unicode Consortium.<ref>Martin Lejeune, 15 June 2017, Oman unveils world's 1st interactive calligraphic Quran Template:Webarchive</ref>

Gallery

Kufic

• Folio from a Qur’an, sura 91,14-15; sura 92,1-5 (F1929.70).jpg

  Kufic script in an 11th-century Qur'an

• Folio Blue Quran Met 2004.88.jpg

  Maghrebi Kufic script in the 9th or 10th century Blue Quran

• Jame mosque yazd tilework.jpg

  Square kufic tilework in Yazd, Iran

• Cup votive inscriptions MET 40-170-15.jpg

  Under-glaze terracotta bowl from the 11th century Nishapur

• Hamdanid gold dinar, Nasir al-Dawla and Sayf al-Dawla.jpg

  Gold dinar from 10th century Syria

• An example of Kufic Calligraphy.jpg

  A Kufic calligraphy in Chota Imambara

Naskh and Thuluth

• Qur'anic Manuscript - Mid to Late 15th Century, Turkey.jpg

  Muhaqqaq script in a 15th-century Qur'an from Turkey

• Qur'an manuscript Surat al-Nisa'. (1).tif

  Muhaqqaq script in a 13th-century Qur'an

• Muhammad ibn Pir Ahmad al-shahir bi-Ibn Arghun al-Shirazi - Text Page with Dedication to the Ottoman Sultan Selim I - Walters W5912A - Full Page.jpg

  Naskh script in an early 16th-century Ottoman manuscript dedicated to Selim I

• Ijazah3.jpg

  Diploma of competency in calligraphy, written with thuluth and naskh script

• Mausolée de Touman Aka (Shah-i-Zinda, Samarcande) (6009410911).jpg

  Thuluth script tile in Samarkand

• Kalligráfia Hagia Sophia.jpg

  Calligraphy of Ali decorating Hagia Sophia

Regional varieties

• مصحف مخطوط بالخط المغربي المبسوط ٥.jpg

  A Moroccan Quran in a mabsūt Maghrebi script

• Folio Quran Met 42.63.jpg

  Surat Az-Zumar in an Andalusi script, from the Nasrid period in Al-Andalus

• سورة الأعراف مكتوبة بالخط السوقي ٣.jpg

  Surat Al-A'raf written in Suqi script, named after Essouk

• Bifolium Mushal al-Hadina Quran Met 2007.191.jpg

  Nurse's Quran (Mushaf al-Hadina), from the Zirid period in Tunisia, in a Kufic script

• Bismillah 2.svg

  Bismillah Bismillah Thuluth

• Quran with Chinese translation.jpg

  Quran in Sini script with Chinese translations

Modern examples

• Bismillah 2.svg

  Bismallah calligraphy. Thuluth Jali

• Muhammad calligraphy.svg

  Muhammad calligraphy

• Bismillah gold.svg

  Bismallah calligraphy

• Caligrafia arabe pajaro.svg

  An example of zoomorphic calligraphy

Craft

• Learning Arabic calligraphy.jpg

  The instruments and work of a student calligrapher

• Menulis khat.jpg

  Islamic calligraphy performed by a Malay Muslim in Malaysia. Calligrapher is making a rough draft.

List of calligraphers

Some classical calligraphers: Template:Columns-list

External links

• Islamic Calligraphy Pictures
• Mushaf Muscat
• mastersofistanbul.com
• baradariarts.com
• Gallery with much calligraphy in Turkish mosque
• Anthology of Persian calligraphers from 10th to 20th centuries