Emperor Jimmu

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Template:Expand Japanese Template:Infobox royalty Template:Infobox Chinese Template:Nihongo was the legendary first emperor of Japan according to the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name="KodanshaJimmu"/> His ascension is traditionally dated as 660 BC.<ref name="kelly">Kelly, Charles F. "Kofun Culture", Japanese Archaeology. April 27, 2009.</ref><ref name="Understanding Japanese Religion p. 145">* Kitagawa, Joseph (1987). Template:Google books: "emphasis on the undisrupted chronological continuity from myths to legends and from legends to history, it is difficult to determine where one ends and the next begins. At any rate, the first ten legendary emperors are clearly not reliable historical records."

Boleslaw Szczesniak, "The Sumu-Sanu Myth: Notes and Remarks on the Jimmu Tenno Myth", in Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 10, No. 1/2 (Winter 1954), pp. 107–26. {{#invoke:doi|main}}. Template:JSTOR.</ref> In Japanese mythology, he was a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, through her grandson Ninigi, as well as a descendant of the storm god Susanoo. He launched a military expedition from Hyūga near the Seto Inland Sea, captured Yamato, and established this as his center of power. In modern Japan, Emperor Jimmu's legendary ascension is marked as National Foundation Day on February 11.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

There is no evidence to suggest that Jimmu existed and is regarded by most modern scholars as a legendary figure.

Name and titleEdit

Jimmu is recorded as Japan's first ruler in two early chronicles, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (721) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (712).<ref name="KodanshaJimmu" /> {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} gives the dates of his reign as 660–585 BC.<ref name="KodanshaJimmu" /> In the reign of Emperor Kanmu (737–806),Template:Sfn the eighth-century scholar Ōmi no Mifune retroactively designated rulers before Emperor Ōjin as Template:Nihongo, a Japanese pendant to the Chinese imperial title Tiān-dì (天帝), and gave several of them including Jimmu their posthumous names. Prior to this time, these rulers had been known as Sumera no mikoto/Ōkimi. This practice had begun under Empress Suiko, and took root after the Taika Reforms with the ascendancy of the Nakatomi clan.<ref>Jacques H. Kamstra Encounter Or Syncretism: The Initial Growth of Japanese Buddhism, Brill 1967 pp. 65–67.</ref>

Both the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} give Jimmu's name as Template:Nihongo or Template:Nihongo.<ref>神倭伊波礼琵古命, OJ pronunciation: Kamu-Yamatö-ipare-biko (nö-mikötö) Donald Philippi, tr. Kojiki, University of Tokyo Press, 1969 p. 488</ref> Iware indicates a toponym (an old place name in the Nara region) whose precise purport is unclear.<ref>Japanese Wikipedia Iware</ref> '-no-Mikoto' is an honorific, indicating divinity, nobility, or royalty.

Among his other names were: Template:Nihongo, Template:Nihongo and Template:Nihongo.

The Imperial House of Japan traditionally based its claim to the throne on its putative descent from the sun-goddess Amaterasu via Jimmu's great-grandfather Ninigi.<ref>Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi, [Japanese Loyalism Reconstrued: Yamagata Daini's Ryūshi Shinron of 1759], University of Hawai'i Press, 1995 pp. 106–107.</ref>

Legendary narrativeEdit

File:Portrait-Emperor-Jimmu-by-Tsukioka-Yoshitoshi-1880.png

Emperor Jimmu, ukiyo-e by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1880)

File:Emperor-Jinmu-from-series-Mirror-of-Famous-Generals-of-Great-Japan.png

Emperor Jimmu, from the first National Census book 1920 in Japan

In Japanese mythology, the Age of the Gods is the period before Jimmu's accession.<ref>Nussbaum, "Jindai" at Template:Google books.</ref>

The story of Jimmu seems to rework legends associated with the Template:Nihongo, and its function was to establish that clan's links to the ruling family, just as those of Suijin arguably reflect Mononobe tales and the legends in Ōjin's chronicles seem to derive from Soga clan traditions.<ref>Jacques H. Kamstra, Encounter Or Syncretism: The Initial Growth of Japanese Buddhism, Brill 1967 pp. 69–70.</ref> Jimmu figures as a direct descendant of the sun goddess, Amaterasu via the side of his father, Ugayafukiaezu. Amaterasu had a son called Ame no Oshihomimi no Mikoto and through him a grandson named Ninigi-no-Mikoto. She sent her grandson to the Japanese islands where he eventually married Konohana-Sakuya-hime. Among their three sons was Hikohohodemi no Mikoto, also called Yamasachi-hiko, who married Toyotama-hime. She was the daughter of Ryūjin, the Japanese sea god. They had a single son called Hikonagisa Takeugaya Fukiaezu no Mikoto. The boy was abandoned by his parents at birth and consequently raised by Tamayori-hime, his mother's younger sister. They eventually married and had four sons. The last of these, Hikohohodemi, became Emperor Jimmu.<ref>Nussbaum, "Chijin-godai" at Template:Google books.</ref>

MigrationEdit

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File:Emperor Jimmu.jpg

Depiction of a bearded Jimmu with his bow and the golden kite. This 19th-century artwork was painted by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi.

File:Tennō Jimmu image 01.jpg

Painting of Jimmu by Renzō Kita in 1940

According to the chronicles {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Jimmu's brothers Itsuse no Mikoto, Inahi no Mikoto, and Mikeiri no Mikoto were born in Takachiho, the southern part of Kyūshū in modern-day Miyazaki Prefecture. They moved eastward to find a location more appropriate for administering the entire country. Jimmu's older brother, Itsuse no Mikoto, originally led the migration, and led the clan eastward through the Seto Inland Sea with the assistance of local chieftain Template:Ill. As they reached Naniwa (modern-day Osaka), they encountered another local chieftain, Nagasunehiko ("the long-legged man"), and Itsuse was killed in the ensuing battle. Jimmu realized that they had been defeated because they battled eastward against the sun, so he decided to land on the east side of Kii Peninsula and to battle westward. They reached Kumano, and, with the guidance of a three-legged crow Template:Nihongo, they moved to Yamato. There, they once again battled Nagasunehiko and were victorious. The record in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} of Emperor Jimmu states that his armed forces defeated a group of Template:Nihongo before his enthronement.<ref name="Iwate">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Emishi were an ethnic group who lived in Honshu, particularly the Tōhoku region.

In Yamato, Nigihayahi, who also claimed descent from the Takamagahara gods, was protected by Nagasunehiko. However, when Nigihayahi met Jimmu, he accepted Jimmu's legitimacy. At this point, Jimmu is said to have ascended to the throne of Japan. Upon scaling a Nara mountain to survey the Seto Inland Sea he now controlled, Jimmu remarked that it was shaped like the "heart" rings made by mating dragonflies, archaically Template:Nihongo.<ref>メンテナンス中</ref> A mosquito then tried to steal Jimmu's royal blood but since Jimmu was a god incarnate Emperor, Template:Nihongo, a dragonfly killed the mosquito. Japan thus received its classical name the Dragonfly Islands, Template:Nihongo.

File:Tomb of Emperor Jimmu, haisho.JPG

Unebi Goryō, the mausoleum of Emperor Jimmu in Kashihara City, Nara Prefecture

According to the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Jimmu died when he was 126 years old. The Emperor's posthumous name literally means "divine might" or "god-warrior". It is generally thought that Jimmu's name and character evolved into their present shape just before<ref>Kennedy, Malcolm D. A History of Japan. London. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1963.</ref> the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were chronicled in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.Template:Sfn There are accounts written earlier than either {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} that present an alternative version of the story. According to these accounts, Jimmu's dynasty was supplanted by that of Ōjin, whose dynasty was supplanted by that of Keitai.<ref>Ooms, Herman. Imperial Politics and Symbolics in Ancient Japan: the Tenmu Dynasty, 650–800. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2009</ref> The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} then combined these three legendary dynasties into one long and continuous genealogy.

The traditional site of Jimmu's grave is near Mount Unebi in Kashihara, Nara Prefecture.<ref name="kunaicho">Imperial Household Agency (Kunaichō): 神武天皇 (1); retrieved August 22, 2013.</ref>

File:Kashihara M6522.jpg

The inner prayer hall of Kashihara Shrine in Kashihara, Nara, the principal shrine devoted to Jimmu

Imperial Era venerationEdit

Veneration of Jimmu was a central component of the imperial cult that formed following the Meiji Restoration.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 1873, a holiday called Kigensetsu was established on February 11.<ref name=kodanshakigensetsu>"Kigensetsu Controversy", Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia (1993), Kodansha. Template:ISBN.</ref> The holiday commemorated the anniversary of Jimmu's ascension to the throne 2,532 years earlier.<ref>Britannica Kokusai Dai-Hyakkajiten article on "Kigensetsu".</ref> After World War II, the holiday was criticized as too closely associated with the "emperor system."<ref name="kodanshakigensetsu"/> It was suspended from 1948 to 1966, but later reinstated as National Foundation Day.<ref name="kodanshakigensetsu"/><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Between 1873 and 1945, an imperial envoy sent offerings every year to the supposed site of Jimmu's tomb.<ref name="martin">Martin, Peter. (1997). The Chrysanthemum Throne: A History of the Emperors of Japan, pp. 18–20.</ref> In 1890 Kashihara Shrine was established nearby, on the spot where Jimmu was said to have ascended to the throne.<ref>Kashihara City website tourism page on "Kashihara Jingū".</ref>

Before and during World War II, expansionist propaganda made frequent use of the phrase hakkō ichiu, a term coined by Tanaka Chigaku based on a passage in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} discussing Emperor Jimmu.<ref>Britannica Kokusai Dai-Hyakkajiten article on "Hakkō ichiu".</ref> Some media incorrectly attributed the phrase to Emperor Jimmu.<ref>Dower, John W., War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War, faber and faber, 1993 p. 223.</ref> For the 1940 Kigensetsu celebration, marking the supposed 2,600th anniversary of Jimmu's enthronement, the Peace Tower<ref>Template:Nihongo</ref> was constructed in Miyazaki.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

That same year, numerous stone monuments relating to key events in Jimmu's life were erected around Japan. The sites at which these monuments were erected are known as Emperor Jimmu Sacred Historical Sites.<ref name="Ruoff2014">Template:Cite book</ref>

File:Celebrating Gagaku Music in Imperial 2600.JPG

124th Emperor Hirohito and Empress Nagako presiding the celebration of the 2600th anniversary of mythical foundation of the Empire in November 1940

In 1940, Japan celebrated the 2600th anniversary of Jimmu's ascension and built a monument to Hakkō ichiu despite the fact that all historians knew Jimmu was a mythical figure. In 1941, the Japanese government charged the one historian who dared to challenge Jimmu's existence publicly, Tsuda Sōkichi.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

HistoricityEdit

Template:See also Since after World War II, when the prohibition on questioning the Kojiki and the Nihongi was lifted, documentary research in China and archaeological research in Japan has undermined much of the information in both the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp No evidence has been found for Jimmu's existence, except the mention in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name= "KodanshaJimmu" /><ref name="Hoye 1999 78">Template:Cite book</ref> Today most modern scholars agree that the traditional founding of the imperial dynasty in 660 BC is a myth and that Jimmu is legendary.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Emperor Sujin's historicity is considered possible by historians, while Emperor Kinmei is the first verifiable historical figure in the imperial lineage.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="yoshida">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The dates of Jimmu reigning from 660 BC to 585 BC are improbable.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to Dr. Lu, the year 660 BC was probably selected by the writers of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} to put the founding of Japan on a kanoto-tori year.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

However, the stories of Jimmu may reflect real events of the mid to late Yayoi period.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite book</ref> According to historian Peter Wetzler, Jimmu's conquest of Osaka and Nara may reflect an actual event. Still, the dates and many of the details are fictitious.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite book</ref> Historian Kenneth G. Henshall stated that Jimmu's conquest may also reflect a time when the Yayoi people from continental Asia immigrated in masses starting from Kyushu and moving eastward during the Yayoi period.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite book</ref>

Some scholars suggest that there may have been a real person behind Jimmu. He could have been a local ruler who conquered the area near Kashihara after 62 BC.<ref name=":6" />Template:Rp Some scholars believe he was present in Miyazaki during the first century BC while others say he was there during the third or fourth century AD. Nevertheless, there is a high probability that there was either a foreign or indigenous dynasty in the vicinity of Miyazaki Prefecture during the Kofun period.<ref name=":6" />Template:Rp

According to Louis Frédéric, he may have been a fusion of emperors Sujin and Keitai.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Japanese historian Ino Okifu identifies Emperor Jimmu with the Chinese alchemist and explorer Xu Fu, a hypothesis supported by certain traditions in Japan and regarded as possible by some modern scholars.<ref>Liu, Hong. The Chinese Overseas: Routledge Library of Modern China. Taylor & Francis (2006). Template:ISBN.</ref><ref name="Major">Template:Cite journal</ref> The Yayoi period, during which significant changes in Japanese metallurgy and pottery occurred, started around the time of his supposed arrival.<ref>Lee, Khoon Choy Lee. Choy, Lee K. (1995). Japan – between Myth and Reality: Between Myth and Reality. World Scientific publishing. Template:ISBN.</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, the legend of Xu Fu's voyage also has numerous inconsistencies with the linguistic and anthropological history of Japan.<ref name="Major" />