Jinn

Jinn or djinn (Template:Langx), alternatively genies, are supernatural beings in pre-Islamic Arabian religion and Islam.<ref name=asSamarqandi-on-alFiqh>Template:Cite book </ref> Their existence is generally defined as parallel to humans, as they have free will, are accountable for their deeds, and can be either believers (Muslims) or disbelievers (kuffar) in God.

Since jinn are neither innately evil nor innately good, Islam acknowledged spirits from other religions and could adapt them during its expansion. Likewise, jinn are not a strictly Islamic concept; they may represent several pagan beliefs integrated into Islam.<ref name=McAuliffe-2005-EncQrn/>Template:Efn Islam places jinn and humans on the same plane in relation to God, with both being subject to divine judgement and an afterlife.Template:Sfn The Quran condemns the pre-Islamic Arabian practice of worshipping or seeking protection from them.Template:Sfn

While they are naturally invisible, jinn are supposed to be composed of thin and subtle bodies (Template:Langx) and are capable of shapeshifting, usually choosing to appear as snakes, but also as scorpions, lizards, or humans. A jinn's interaction with a human may be negative, positive, or neutral; and can range from casual to highly intimate, even involving sexual activity and the production of hybrid offspring. However, they rarely meddle in human affairs, preferring instead to live among their own in a societal arrangement similar to that of the Arabian tribes. Upon being disturbed or harmed by humans, they usually retaliate in kind, with the most drastic interactions leading them to possess the assailant's body, thus requiring exorcism.

Individual jinn appear on charms and talismans. They are called upon for protection or magical aid, often under the leadership of a king. Many people who believe in jinn wear amulets to protect themselves against their assaults, as they may be called upon by sorcerers and witches to cause harm. A commonly held belief is that jinn cannot hurt someone who wears something with the name of God (Template:Langx) written on it. These folkloric beliefs and practices, although especially common throughout the Muslim world in the past, have been met with increasing disapproval due to their association with idolatry.

Etymology and translation

File:Blessing genie Dur Sharrukin.jpg

The winged genie in the bucket and cone motif, depicting a demi-divine entity,<ref name=Fee-Webb-2016> Template:Cite book </ref> probably a forerunner of the pre-Islamic tutelary deities, who became the jinn in Islam. Relief from the north wall of the Palace of king Sargon II at Dur Sharrukin, 713–716 BCE.

Jinn is an Arabic collective noun deriving from the Semitic root Template:Sc (Template:Langx, jann), whose primary meaning is 'to hide' or 'to adapt'. Some authors interpret the word to mean, literally, 'beings that are concealed from the senses'.<ref> {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} </ref> Cognates include the Arabic Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'possessed' or, generally, 'insane'), Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'garden', 'eden' or 'heaven'), and Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'embryo').<ref> Template:Cite book </ref> Jinn is properly treated as a plural (however in Classical Arabic, may also appear as jānn, Template:Langx), with the singular being jinnī (Template:Langx),Template:Efn which the English word "genie" is derived from.

The origin of the word jinn remains uncertain.<ref name="Nünlist-2015"/>Template:Rp Some scholars relate the Arabic term jinn to the Latin genius – a guardian spirit of people and places in Roman religion – as a result of syncretism during the reign of the Roman empire under Tiberius and Augustus;Template:Sfn however, this derivation is also disputed.<ref name=Nünlist-2015/>Template:Rp Supporters argue that both Roman genii as well as Arabian jinn are considered to be lesser deities inhabiting local sanctuaries, trees or springs, and persons or families.<ref name="Abu-Hamdiyyah, Muhammad 2020"> Template:Cite book </ref> Aramaic ginnaya (Template:Langx) with the meaning of 'tutelary deity'<ref name=Nünlist-2015/>Template:Rp or 'guardian' are attributed to similar functions and are another possible origin of the term jinn.

Another suggestion holds that the word is of Persian origin and appeared in the form of the Avestic Jaini, a wicked (female) spirit. Jaini were among various creatures in the possibly even pre-Zoroastrian mythology of peoples of Iran.<ref> Template:Cite book </ref><ref> Template:Cite book </ref> Wensick advocates a purely Arabic origin of the term, asserting that according to the common Semitic view psychic and bodily affections are caused by spirits. An object reacting upon such an affect would be an incarnation of said spirit. Since these spirits are covered from the sight of humans, they would have been called jinn.<ref name=MagicAndDivination-2021/>Template:Rp

The anglicized form genie is a borrowing of the French {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, also from the Latin genius.<ref name=oed> Template:Cite dictionary </ref> It first appeared in 18th century translations of the Thousand and One Nights from the 1706 French edition,<ref> Template:Cite book </ref> where it had been used owing to its rough similarity in sound and sense and further applies to benevolent intermediary spirits, in contrast to the malevolent spirits called 'demon' and mostly-benevolent 'heavenly angels', in literature.<ref> Template:Cite book </ref> In Assyrian art, the modern term used for creatures ontologically between humans and divinities is also genie.<ref> Template:Cite book </ref>

Though not a precise fit, descriptive analogies that have been used for these beings in Western thought include demon, spirit, "sprite", and fairy, depending on source.<ref> Template:Cite encyclopedia </ref><ref name=Nünlist-2015> Template:Cite book </ref>Template:Rp In turn, the Arabic translation for the Greek nymph ('arūsa) is also used for jinn by Middle Eastern sources.<ref name=MagicAndDivination-2021/>Template:Rp Although the term spirit is frequently used, it has been criticised for not capturing the corporeal nature of the jinn, and that the term genie should be used instead.<ref> Template:Cite book </ref>

Pre-Islamic era

The exact origins of belief in jinn are not entirely clear.<ref name="Lebling–2010"> Template:Cite book </ref>Template:Rp Belief in jinn in pre-Islamic Arab religion is testified not only by the Quran, but also by pre-Islamic Arabic poetry.<ref name="HistMuh-2016">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Some scholars of the Middle East hold that they originated as malevolent spirits residing in deserts and unclean places, who often took the forms of animals;<ref name="Lebling–2010"/>Template:Rp others hold that they were originally pagan nature deities who gradually became marginalized as other deities took greater importance.<ref name="Lebling–2010"/>Template:Rp

Fear and veneration

Jinn were already worshipped by many Arabs in pre-Islamic Arabia.Template:Sfn<ref name="HistMuh-2016"/>Template:Rp Julius Wellhausen observed that jinn were often thought to "inhabit or haunt desolate, dark and dingy places in the desert".<ref name="Zeitlin59"> Template:Cite book </ref> For that reason, they were held responsible for various diseases and mental illnesses.Template:Sfn<ref name="Lebling–2010"/>Template:Rp Emilie Savage-Smith asserts that malicious jinn and good gods were distinct in pre-Islamic Arabia, but admits that such distinction is not absolute.<ref name="MagicAndDivination-2021">Magic and Divination in Early Islam. (2021). Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis.</ref>Template:Rp In the regions north to the Hejaz, Palmyra and Baalbek, the terms jinni and ilah (deity) were often used interchangeably.<ref>ʻAẓmah, ʻ. (2014). The Emergence of Islam in Late Antiquity: Allah and His People. Vereinigtes Königreich: Cambridge University Press. p. 293</ref> Julius Wellhausen likewise agrees that in pre-Islamic Arabia it was assumed there are at least some friendly and helpful beings among the jinn. He distinguishes between a god and a jinni, not on the basis of morality, but on the basis of worship; the jinn are worshipped in private while the gods are worshipped in public.<ref name="MagicAndDivination-2021"/>Template:Rp

Al-Jahiz credits the pre-Islamic Arabs with believing that the society of jinn constitutes several tribes and groups, analogous to pre-Islamic Arabian culture. Jinn could also protect, marry, kidnap, possess, and kill people.<ref> {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} </ref><ref name=Aloiane-1996/>Template:Rp Despite being invisible, jinn are considered to have bodies (ajsām), as described by Zakariya al-Qazwini, they are among animals, along with humans, burdened beasts (like horses), cattle, wildebeests, birds, and reptiles.<ref>Nasr, S. H. (2013). Islamic Life and Thought. Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis.</ref>Template:Rp Jinn are further known as shapeshifters, often assuming the form of an animal, favoring the form of a snake.<ref>Template:Cite bookTemplate:Full citation needed</ref> Other chthonic animals regarded as forms of jinn include scorpions and lizards. Both scorpions and serpents have been venerated in the ancient Near East.

When they shift into a human form however, they are said to stay partly animal and are not fully human.<ref name="Nünlist-2015"/>Template:RpTemplate:Sfn Although the power of jinn usually exceed those of humans, it is conceivable a man could kill a jinni in single combat, but they are feared for attacking without being seen.<ref> Template:Cite book </ref> Some sources even speak of killed jinn leaving behind a carcass similar to either a serpent or a scorpion.Template:Sfn

Poetry and soothsaying

Despite that they were often feared or inspired awe, the jinn were also pictured to befriend humans or have romantic feelings for them. According to common Arabian belief, pre-Islamic soothsayers, philosophers, and poets were inspired by the jinn.Template:Sfn<ref name="Lebling–2010"/>Template:Rp

The Arabian poet al-A'sha (d. after 3/625) is said to have gotten his inspiration for his poetry by a friend named Misḥal ("daʿawtu khalīlī Misḥalan") and further calls him his jinni-brother ("akhī ʾl-jinnī").<ref name="jstor.org">Template:Cite journal</ref> Similarly, the poet Thābit (d. 54/674) who later converted to Islam and became known as "the poet of the prophet", referred to his jinni-friend as his "sharp-sighted brother from the jinn" ("wa-akhī min al-jinn al-baṣīr").<ref name="jstor.org"/> The relationship between jinn and humans can also be romantic in nature. According to one famous Arabian story, the jinni Manzur fell in love with a human woman called Habbah. He is supposed to have taught her the arts of healing.<ref name="AmiraJinn2">Template:Cite bookTemplate:Full citation needed</ref>

The mutual relationship between jinn and humans is different than that of a jinni and a soothsayer (kāhin). The soothsayer is presented as someone who is totally controlled by the jinni entering. The soothsayer was consulted to reveal hidden information or settle disputes, as it was believed, the jinn speaking through them revealed hidden knowledge.<ref>Ruiz, Manuel. "The conception of authority in pre-Islamic Arabia: its legitimacy and origin." (1971). p. 20</ref>

Islam

Jinn have been called an integral part of the Muslim tradition<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> or faith,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> completely accepted in official Islam;<ref name=EI-2-English/> prominently featured in folklore.<ref name="Olomi-prominently-2021">Template:Cite book</ref> Medieval and modern scholars have studied the consequences implied by their existence,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> legal status, the possible relations between them and mankind, especially in questions of marriage and property.<ref name=EI-2-English>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

Medieval sources often describe the jinn inhabiting the earth before the creation of mankind.<ref>El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and the intelligent world of the Jinn. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-3200-9. p. 39</ref> They serve as a pattern for later human disobedience: at first, they were created by God, then rebel against God's messengers, shed blood and exploit the environment, and are eventually punished by God's angels.<ref>El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and the intelligent world of the Jinn. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-3200-9. p. 41</ref> Muslims raised the question, if some jinn may have survived from primordial times. Some Quran exegetes, such as ibn Kathir hold this to be the case.<ref>El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and the intelligent world of the Jinn. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-3200-9. p. 41</ref> Especially in folklore, the belief that some jinn still hide in desolate places and wastelands are widespread.<ref>El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and the intelligent world of the Jinn. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-3200-9. p. 41</ref>

Quran

File:Naskh script - Qur'anic verses.jpg

The 72nd chapter of the Qur'an entitled Al-Jinn (The Jinn), as well as the heading and introductory bismillah of the next chapter entitled al-Muzzammil (The Enshrouded One)

Jinn are mentioned approximately 29 times in the Quran,<ref name="Lebling–2010" />Template:Rp exclusively in Meccan surahs.Template:Sfn The Quran assumes that the audience is familiar with the subject without elaborating on the jinn much further.<ref>Rothenberg, Celia E. Spirits of Palestine: Gender, society, and stories of the jinn. Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. p.245</ref> According to the Template:Qref, Muhammad was sent as a prophet to both human and jinn communities, and prophets and messengers were sent to both communities.<ref>Template:Qref</ref><ref>Muḥammad ibn Ayyūb al-Ṭabarī, Tuḥfat al-gharā’ib, I, p. 68</ref><ref>Abū al-Futūḥ Rāzī, Tafsīr-e rawḥ al-jenān va rūḥ al-janān, pp. 193, 341</ref>

Throughout the Quran, humans and jinn (al-ins wa-l-jinn) appear frequently as a pair, designating their equal status in regards of their creation and rejecting that jinn share divinity with the Creator.<ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023">Sinai, Nicolai. "Key terms of the Qur'an: a critical dictionary." (2023): 1-840.</ref>Template:Rp<ref name=Fee-Webb-2016/> The term ins derives from anisa, which means "to be familiar with", and refers to recognisable familiar human beings. In contrast, the term jinn refers to foreign, invisible, or unknown anthropomorphic beings, which are nonetheless subject to the same considerations as the former.<ref name="Abu-Hamdiyyah, Muhammad 2020"/>Template:Rp They were both created to worship God (Template:Qref).<ref name="Medieval-2006"/><ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023"/>Template:Rp Because they are supposed to worship God from free will, they are both able for good and evil deeds (Template:Qref, Template:Qref).<ref name="Medieval-2006"/><ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023"/>Template:Rp They are, like humans, rational beings formed of nations (Template:Qref).<ref name="Medieval-2006"/><ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023"/>Template:Rp

Surah al-jinn is about the revelation to jinn.Template:Sfn The same Surah mentions righteous jinn on one hand, and malicious jinn on the other.<ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023"/>Template:Rp The jinn can neither harm nor benefit humans, for they are occupied with looking after themselves and their own place in the cosmos.<ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023"/>Template:Rp This is in notable contrast to demons and devils in the Judeo-Christian tradition.<ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023"/>Template:Rp The Quran does not condemn the jinn as a source of harm, but by mistaking them for beings deserving cultic veneration (Template:Qref).<ref name="Medieval-2006">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="MagicAndDivination-2021"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023"/>Template:Rp Jinn and humans are blamed for ascribing divine attributes to another creature (i.e. jinn); jinn to themselves and humans to the jinn.<ref name="MagicAndDivination-2021"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Abu-Hamdiyyah, Muhammad 2020"/>Template:Rp

In the Quranic account, despite their similarities, there are important differences between the two species. Whereas humans are made from "clay" or "dirt", jinn were created from "smokeless fire" (Template:Qref, Template:Qref),<ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023"/>Template:Rp which is possibly the reason why they are credited with some extraordinary abilities, such as invisibility, transformation, and ascending into the air like devils (Template:Qref).<ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023"/>Template:Rp Despite some superhuman powers, the jinn occupy no fundamentally different position in the Quran than humans. Like humans, the jinn have no knowledge of the future.<ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023"/>Template:Rp Like humanity, jinn face epistemic limitations regarding "the hidden/occult", have to rely on God's messengers, and face eschatological judgement.<ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023"/>Template:Rp<ref>Teuma, Edmund. "The Solomon legend in Muslim tradition." (1987).</ref><ref name="Medieval-2006"/>

Exegesis

File:Royal figure enthroned and surrounded by Jinn of the Earth.png

Kashan, Iran, late 12th–13th century mina’i-fritware bowl. The scene in this bowl can be understood as depicting the enthroned (Second) Sulaymān with messengers to either side, crowned human headed winged jinn.<ref>On the Exercise of Coastal Control through Observation and Long Distance Communication Systems in Seljuk Territory in the XIIIth Century</ref>

File:The Singer Ibrahim and the jinn (cropped).jpg

The Singer Ibrahim and the jinn. Ibrahim has been imprisoned by his master Muhammad al-Amin and visited by a jinn in guise of an old man. The jinn offers him food and drink and is so impressed by Ibrahim's voice that he convinces Muhammad to free him.<ref>Komaroff, Linda, and Stefano Carboni, eds. The legacy of Genghis Khan: courtly art and culture in Western Asia, 1256-1353. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2002.</ref>

The term jinn is polysemic and can refer to (genuine) jinn, angels, and devils.<ref>Demircigil, Bayram. "Kur’an’da el-Cin Kavramının Medlulü Hakkındaki İhtilaflar." Cumhuriyet İlahiyat Dergisi 26.1 (2022): 433-449.</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">DÜZGÜN, Şaban Ali. "DİNSEL ve MİTOLOJİK YÖNLERİYLE CİN ve ŞAYTAAN ALGIMIZ."</ref>Template:Rp<ref name="Abu-Hamdiyyah, Muhammad 2020"/> In Quranic interpretation, the term jinn is thus used for any object hidden from sight, such as angels, devils, and the (spiritual) interior of human beings (psyche),<ref name="Teuma, E. 1984"/><ref>Noegel, Scott B. & Wheeler, Brannon M. (2010) The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism. Scarecrow Press Template:ISBN page 170</ref>Template:Efn as well as a to a specific being, separate from both angels and devils. The latter are believed to be the offspring of abu Jann, created out of "fire and air" (Template:Langx, mārijin min nār), and considered to be, along with humans, thaqalān (accountable for their deeds).<ref name="Teuma, E. 1984">Teuma, E. (1984). More on Qur'anic jinn. Melita Theologica, 35(1-2), 37-45.</ref><ref>Lange, Christian & Knysh, Alexander D. (eds.) (2022). Sufi cosmology. Boston: Brill.</ref>

Belief in jinn is not included among the six articles of Islamic faith, as belief in angels is. Nonetheless, many Muslim scholars, including the Hanbalī scholar ibn Taymiyya and the Ẓāhirī scholar ibn Hazm, believe they are essential to the Islamic faith since they are mentioned in the Quran.<ref name="Nünlist-2015"/>Template:Rp It is generally accepted by the majority of Muslim scholars that jinn can possess individuals. This is considered to be part of the doctrines (aqidah) of the "people of the Sunnah" (ahl as-sunnah wal-jammah'a) in the tradition of Ash'ari.<ref name="Böttcher–2021">Islam, Migration and Jinn: Spiritual Medicine in Muslim Health Management. (2021). Deutschland: Springer International Publishing.</ref>Template:Rp The Atharī scholars ibn Taimiyya and ibn Qayyim agree on this matter.<ref name="Böttcher–2021"/> From among the Sunni schools of theology, only the Māturīdīs seem to doubt possession. Al-Rustughfanī deemed jinn-possession impossible.<ref>Harvey, Ramon. Transcendent God, Rational World: A Maturidi Theology. Edinburgh University Press, 2021.</ref>

Al-Māturīdī focuses on the dynamics between jinn and humans based on Template:Qref. He states that seeking refuge among the jinn increases fear and anxiety, however, not because of the jinn, but due to the psychological dependence of the individual towards external powers. By that, he refers to seeking refuge among the jinn as a form of širk, due to the reliance on a created thing instead of God.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>Template:Rp

Although jinn frequently appear in hagiographic Sufi literature and their existence is never doubted, they do not play any major role in Sufi cosmology. Because of their similarities to humans, they function neither as a model to follow (like angels) nor tempters of the lower self (like Satan) and mostly feature in poetic anecdotes.<ref>Yazaki, Saeko. "Classes of Beings in Sufism." Sufi Cosmology. Brill, 2022. 68-88.</ref>

Jurisprudence

The jinn are obligated to follow the divine law (sharīʿa), as derived from the Quran by Muslim jurists (faqīh). Thus, the jinn are considered, along with humans, to be mukallāf. Believers among the jinn are called "Muslim jinn" (muslimū l-jinn).<ref>Lange, Christian (2016). Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions. Cambridge United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-50637-3. p- 140</ref>

Since both creations must perform the required prayers (salah), Muslim jurists debated if one is allowed to perform the prayer behind a jinni. Shibli cites two Hanbalite scholars who regard this as permissible without hesitation. Since Muhammad was sent to jinn and humans, both are mukallāf and subject to the command to pray.Template:Efn

Because humans and jinn are capable of procreation, Muslim jurists dealt with the issue of permissibility of intercourse between these two types of creatures. Some Ḥadīths, though considered fabricated (mawḍūʻ) by some muhaddith (hadith scholars), pushed the necessity for an explanation:<ref name=Hidden>Template:Cite book</ref>

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Although there are recorded cases of purported human-jinn relationshipsTemplate:Efn most Muslim jurists agree that such a relationship is not permissible.<ref>Köse S. Ci̇nlerle Evli̇li̇k Konusunda Hanefî Faki̇hi̇ Hâmi̇d El-İmâdî’ni̇n (1103-1171/1692-1758) Teka’ku’u’ş-Şenn Fî Ni̇kâhi̇’l-Ci̇nn Adli Ri̇salesi̇. Journal of Islamic Law Studies. 2010;(15):453-464. Accessed January 25, 2022.</ref> Even those scholars who allowed such relationships, still considered them undesirable (makruh).<ref name=Hidden/> Offspring of human-jinn relationships are nonetheless, usually considered to be gifted and talented people with special abilities.<ref name=Aloiane-1996>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Folklore

File:Jinn of the Air in Seljuk arts.png

Examples of the Jinn of the Air depicted on Seljuk 13th century tilework from Kubad Abad.

The jinn (also known as: Template:Langx, Template:Langx, Template:Langx) were adopted by later Islamic culture, since the Quran affirms their existence.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> Although depictions are categorized into little tradition (folklore) and greater tradition (official Islam) for research purposes, both depictions are largely the same.Template:Efn

The Quran does not consider foreign mythological beings to be devils, but entities erroneously ascribed divine power to. Therefore, jinn were considered a third class of invisible beings, often neutral or morally ambiguous, not consequently equated with devils.Template:Sfn Islam allowed to integrate local beliefs about spirits and deities from Iran, Africa, Turkey and India, into a monotheistic framework without demonizing them.<ref>Juan Eduardo Campo (2009) Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing Template:ISBN page 402</ref> Besides local deities, the existence of purely malevolent spirits is also acknowledged. Thus, jinn exist alongside other mythological entities, such as demons (Dēw) and fairies (parī).<ref>Heuer, B., Boykova, E. V., Kellner-Heinkele, B. (2020). Man and Nature in the Altaic World.: Proceedings of the 49th Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Berlin, July 30 – August 4, 2006. Deutschland: De Gruyter. p. 300-301</ref>

The moral attitude of the jinn is usually associated with their religion. Good jinn are usually considered Muslim jinn or jinn Islam, whereas unbelieving jinn were tempted by the devils (shayatin) and are called kāfir jinn or jinn kāfir.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Besides Islam, they could also practise Christianity and Judaism.<ref name="Gregg, G. S. 2005 p. 127">Gregg, G. S. (2005). The Middle East: A Cultural Psychology. Vereinigtes Königreich: Oxford University Press, USA. p. 127</ref> Good jinn might teach people moral lessons and might be benevolent,<ref>Celia E. Rothenberg Spirits of Palestine: Gender, Society, and Stories of the Jinn Rowman & Littlefield, 5 Nov 2004 Template:Isbn pp. 29-33</ref> or aid spiritual persons, such as shamans (kam) in Central Asia, or spiritual healers in Senegal.<ref>Bullard, A. (2022). Spiritual and Mental Health Crisis in Globalizing Senegal: A History of Transcultural Psychiatry. USA: Taylor & Francis.</ref><ref>Sidky, M. Homayun. "" Malang", Sufis, and Mystics: An Ethnographic and Historical Study of Shamanism in Afghanistan." Asian Folklore Studies (1990): 275-301.</ref> Mediha Esenel's studies in 1940 Anatolia mentions the belief that spiritually gifted people can act as intermediaries between humans and jinn.<ref>Zarcone, Thierry. "Shamanism in Turkey: Bards, Masters of the Jinns, and Healers." Shamanism and Islam: Sufism, Healing Rituals and Spirits in the Muslim World (2013): 169-202.</ref>

Most of the time, jinn are believed not to interfere with humans and live mostly in desolate or abandoned places.<ref name="Hughes-1885-134-6">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="auto">Türk Söylence Sözlüğü, Deniz Karakurt, Türkiye, 2011</ref> This is, for example, evident from the Turkish phrase İn Cin top oynuyor.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is only when they are angered or disturbed, for example, if their children are trodden upon or hot water is thrown on them,<ref>Robert Elsie A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture C. Hurst & Co. Publishers 2001 Template:ISBN p. 134</ref> that they take revenge on humans. For this reason, Muslims utter "destur" (permission), before doing something which might accidentally hurt jinn, such as sprinkling hot water on public grounds or into bushes, so present jinn are advised to leave the place.<ref name="Hughes-1885-134-6"/><ref>MacDonald, D.B., Massé, H., Boratav, P.N., Nizami, K.A. and Voorhoeve, P., "Ḏj̲inn", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 15 November 2019 {{#invoke:doi|main}} First published online: 2012 First print edition: Template:ISBN, 1960–2007.</ref><ref name="Lebling–2010"/>Template:Rp

Angered or straightforwardly evil mannered jinn, could hurt people by inflicting physical damage, causing illness, or taking control over a human's body.<ref name="Gregg, G. S. 2005 p. 127"/> A human can be controlled by jinn under certain circumstances. The individual needs to be in a state of dha'iyfah (Arabic: ضَعِيفَة, "(mental) weakness"). Feelings of insecurity, mental instability, unhappy love and depression (being "tired from the soul") are forms of dha'iyfah.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In that case, it is believed that an exorcism is required to save the person from the assaulting jinni.<ref>Joseph P. Laycock Spirit Possession around the World: Possession, Communion, and Demon Expulsion across Cultures: Possession, Communion, and Demon Expulsion across Cultures ABC-CLIO 2015 Template:ISBN page 243</ref> To protect oneself from jinn, many Muslims wear amulets with the name of God graved on. Jinn are also said to be scared of iron<ref name="Lebling–2010" />Template:Rp and wolves.<ref name="Ameen–2015">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref name="Lebling–2010" />Template:Rp

Modern and post-modern era

Post-modern literature and movies

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File:Majlis al Jinn - Descending into cave.jpg

The cave chamber Majlis al Jinn, believed to be a gathering place of the jinn in Omani lore

Jinn feature in the magical realism genre, introduced into Turkish literature by Latife Tekin (1983),<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> who uses magical elements known from pre-Islamic and Islamic Anatolian lore. Since the 1980s, this genre has become prominent in Turkish literature. The story by Tekin deals with folkloric and religious belief in a rationalized society.<ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref>

Contrary to the neutral to positive depiction of jinn in Tekin's novels, since 2004 jinn have become a common trope in Middle Eastern horror movies.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The presentation of jinn usually combines Quranic with oral and cultural beliefs about jinn.<ref name=Zeynep-2007/> Out of 89 films, 59 have direct references to jinn as the antagonist, 12 use other sorts of demons, while other types of horror, such as the impending apocalypse, hauntings, or ghosts, constitute only 14 films.<ref name=Zeynep-2007>Template:Cite book</ref> The popularity of jinn as a choice of monster can best be explained by their affirmation in the Quran.<ref name="Sengul-2020">Sengul, Ali. "Cinema, Horror and the Wrath of God: Turkish Islam's Claims in the Kurdish East." Nübihar Akademi 4.14: 11-28.</ref> They are still a popular trope today. A study from 2020 shows that jinn are still the favorite horror element among teenagers.<ref>Gjinali, V., & Tunca, E. A. (2020). A General Look on the Impact of Turkish Horror Movies: An Exploratory Study on the Opinions of Youth on Horror Movies. SAGE Open, 10(4). {{#invoke:doi|main}}</ref> Jinn further feature in Iranian horror movies.<ref>Khosroshahi, Zahra. "Vampires, Jinn and the Magical in Iranian Horror Films." Frames 16 (2019): 2.</ref>

Prevalence of belief

File:West Gate Of Firoz Shah's Cotillah, Delhi - British Library .X768-2(11)jpg.jpg

West Gate Of Firoz Shah's Cotillah. Firoz Shah Kotla is believed to inhabit saints from among the jinn. In the Indian Muslim consciousness, due to their longevity, the jinn connect centuries of Muslim experience. Since 1977 the place has become popular for jinn-saint-veneration.<ref>Taneja, Anand Vivek. "Jinnealogy: Everyday life and Islamic theology in post-Partition Delhi." HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 3.3 (2013): 141.</ref>

Though discouraged by some teachings of modern Islam, cultural beliefs about jinn remain popular among Muslim societies and their understanding of cosmology and anthropology.<ref name=Partovi-2009>Template:Cite journal</ref> Affirmation on the existence of jinn as sapient creatures living along with humans is still widespread in the Middle Eastern world (including Egypt),<ref name=cook-koran-47>Template:Cite book</ref> and West Africa,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Rassool">Template:Cite book</ref> mental illnesses are still often attributed to jinn possession.<ref name="Rassool"/>

Since modern times, jinn were often portrayed in a more negative light. After the failure of the rebellion against the East India Company, the Muslim elite regarded jinn-veneration in India as a superstitional belief and hinders the common people to instigate military power.<ref>Taneja, Anand Vivek. "Jinnealogy: Everyday life and Islamic theology in post-Partition Delhi." HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 3.3 (2013): 151-152.</ref> Similarly, the Deobandi movement, although not denying the reality of jinn, mostly depicts jinn as malevolent beings who need to be avoided or exorcised.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Taneja, Anand Vivek. "Jinnealogy: Everyday life and Islamic theology in post-Partition Delhi." HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 3.3 (2013): 152.</ref> In modern Iran, (evil) jinn are often substituted by devils.<ref>Friedl, E. (2020). Religion and Daily Life in the Mountains of Iran: Theology, Saints, People. Vereinigtes Königreich: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 86</ref> Similarly, in many modern tales, the term jinn is used for div (demon), causing a shift in meaning.<ref>Huart, Cl. and Massé, H., “Dīw”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 31 January 2024 {{#invoke:doi|main}} First published online: 2012 First print edition: Template:ISBN, 1960-2007</ref> Nonetheless, traditional belief in jinn remains popular in Islamic culture.<ref name=Omidsalar-2000-12-15>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} </ref> The negative evaluations of jinn are not static, but rather entangled with traditional and also positive depictions of jinn.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

According to a survey undertaken by the Pew Research Center in 2012:<ref name="Rassool 2018">Template:Cite book</ref>

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The amount of Muslims believing in jinn from Bosnia and Herzegovina is higher than the general European average (30%), although only 21% believe in sorcery and 13% would wear talisman for protection against jinn; 12% support offerings and appeal given to the jinn.<ref>Větrovec, Lukáš. "Curse, Possession and Other Worlds: Magic and Witchcraft among the Bosniaks." p. 74</ref>

Sleep paralysis is understood as a "jinn attack" by many sleep paralysis sufferers in Egypt, as discovered by a Cambridge neuroscience study Jalal, Simons-Rudolph, Jalal, & Hinton (2013).<ref name=Jalal-SimonsRudolph-etal-2013-10>Template:Cite journal</ref> The study found that as many as 48% of those who experience sleep paralysis in Egypt believe it to be an assault by the jinn.<ref name=Jalal-SimonsRudolph-etal-2013-10/> Almost all of these sleep paralysis sufferers (95%) would recite verses from the Quran during sleep paralysis to prevent future "jinn attacks". In addition, some (9%) would increase their daily Islamic prayer (ṣalāh) to get rid of these assaults by jinn.<ref name=Jalal-SimonsRudolph-etal-2013-10/> Sleep paralysis is generally associated with great fear in Egypt, especially if believed to be supernatural in origin.<ref name=Jalal-Hinton-2013-09>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Similarly, European patients with a Muslim background often attribute mental illnesses to jinn.<ref name="Lim"> Lim A, Hoek HW, Blom JD. The attribution of psychotic symptoms to jinn in Islamic patients. Transcultural Psychiatry. 2015;52(1):18-32. doi:10.1177/1363461514543146</ref> Most common attributions to jinn are symptoms of hallucination and psychotic symptoms, but can also include mood disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), Capgras syndrome, and epilepsy.<ref name="Lim"/> It has been noted that not all Muslims who believe in jinn, believe they can possess people. Furthermore, belief in possession is not limited to Muslims.<ref>Guthrie E, Abraham S, Nawaz S. Process of determining the value of belief about jinn possession and whether or not they are a result of mental illness. BMJ Case Rep. 2016 Feb 2;2016:bcr2015214005. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2015-214005. PMID 26838303; PMCID: PMC4746541. </ref> Contrary to the assumption that higher education is proportional to disenchantment, belief in jinn-possession may remain intact even after medical graduation.<ref>Uvais, N. A.. Jinn and Psychiatry: Beliefs among (Muslim) doctors. Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry 33(1):47-49, Jan–Mar 2017. {{#invoke:doi|main}}</ref>

In the process of objectification of Islam occurring especially among Muslims in the diaspora, folkloric depictions of jinn become less common and increasingly viewed as "local beliefs" or "un-Islamic". Stories and beliefs regarding jinn, are often downplayed in favor of a normative approach to religion.<ref>Rothenberg, C. E. (2011). Islam on the Internet: the jinn and the objectification of Islam. The Journal of Religion and Popular Culture, 23(3), 358-371.</ref>

Visual art

File:Porte citadelle alep (arch).jpg

Ornamentation of intertwined serpents above the door of the Citadel of Aleppo

Although there are very few visual representations of jinn in Islamic art, when they do appear, it is usually related to a specific event or individual jinn.

Visual representations of jinn appear in manuscripts, and their existence is often implied in works of architecture by the presence of apotropaic devices like serpents, which were intended to ward off evil spirits. Lastly, King Solomon is illustrated very often with jinn as the commander of an army that included them.

Architectural representation

File:Jinn Carrying Solomon's Throne.png

Takht-i Marmar, the marble throne supported by jinn and divs (demons), Gulistan Palace, Teheran, created for Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797–1833)

In addition to these representations of jinn in vicinity to kingship, there were also architectural references to jinn throughout the Islamic world. In the Citadel of Aleppo, the entrance gate Bab al-Hayyat made reference to jinn in the stone relief carvings of serpents; likewise, the water gate at Ayyubid Harran housed two copper sculptures of jinn, serving as talismans to ward off both snakes and evil jinn in the form of snakes.<ref name=Duggan-2018/>Template:Rp

Alongside these depictions of the jinn found at the Aleppo Citadel, depictions of the jinn can be found in the Rūm Seljuk palace. There are a phenomenal range of creatures that can be found on the eight-pointed tiles of the Seal of Sulaymān device.<ref name=Duggan-2018/>Template:Rp Among these were the jinn, that belonged among Solomon's army and as Solomon claimed to have control over the jinn, so did the Rūm Seljuk sultan that claimed to be the Sulaymān of his time.<ref name=Duggan-2018/>Template:Rp In fact, one of the most common representations of jinn are alongside or in association with King Solomon. It was thought that King Solomon had very close ties to the jinn, and even had control over many of them.<ref name=Duggan-2018> Template:Cite journal </ref>Template:Rp The idea that a great and just ruler commands jinn was also extended to other emperors, such as Alexander the Great.<ref name=Duggan-2018/>Template:Rp

Given this association, jinn were often seen with Solomon in a princely or kingly context, such as the small, animal-like jinn sitting beside King Solomon on his throne illustrated in an illuminated manuscript of Aja'ib al-Makhluqat by Zakariya al-Qazwini, written in the 13th century.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Talismanic representation

File:Tawiz.jpg

Image of a talisman (tawiz), supposed to ward off jinn, evil eye, sorcery, and demons.

The jinn had an indirect impact on Islamic art through the creation of talismans that were alleged to guard the bearer from the jinn and were enclosed in leather and included Qur'anic verses.Template:Sfn It was not unusual for those talismans to be inscribed with separated Arabic letters, because the separation of those letters was thought to positively affect the potency of the talisman overall.Template:Sfn An object that was inscribed with the word of Allah was thought to have the power to ward off evil from the person who obtained the object, though many of these objects also had astrological signs, depictions of prophets, or religious narratives.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In the Kitāb al-Bulhān

File:Red Jinn-King of Tuesday.png

Al-Ahmar, the Red King of Tuesday. One of the Seven jinn-kings in the late 14th-century Book of Wonders.

In the Book of Wonders compiled in the 14th century by Abd al-Hasan al-Isfahani, there are illustrations of various supernatural beings (demons, ʿafārīt,<ref>de Lafayette, Maximillien (2017). Early & contemporary spirit artists, psychic artists, and medium painters from 5000 BC to the present day economy. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-365-97802-9.</ref> jinn, the evil eye, devils, lilith, celestial spirits, etc.).<ref name="Taheri, Alireza 2017">Taheri, Alireza. "Comparative Study of «The Book of Felicity» Paintings and Book of «Al-Bulhan» of Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi." Honar-Ha-Ye-Ziba: Honar-Ha-Ye-Tajassomi 22.1 (2017): 15-29.</ref><ref name=Carboni-2013>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp

Each celestial spirit is referred to as a "King of the Jinn", represented alongside his spiritual helpers and alongside the corresponding talismanic symbols.<ref name=Carboni-2013/>Template:Rp For instance, the 'Red King of Tuesday' was depicted in the Book of Wonders as a sinister form astride a lion. In the same illustration, he holds a severed head and a sword, because the 'Red King of Tuesday' was aligned with Mars, the god of war.<ref name=Carboni-2013/>Template:Rp Alongside that, there were illustrations of the 'Gold King' and the 'White King'.<ref name=Carboni-2013/>Template:Rp

Aside from the seven 'Kings of the Jinn', the Book of Wonders included an illustration of Huma (Arabic: حمى), or the 'Fever'. Huma was depicted as three-headed and as embracing the room around him, in order to capture someone and bring on a fever in them.<ref name=Carboni-2013/>Template:Rp

Magical practises

Jinn might be invoked, along with demons and devils, for means of sorcery, incantation, protection, or divination.<ref>Gerda Sengers Women and Demons: Cultic Healing in Islamic Egypt BRILL 2003 Template:ISBN page 31</ref><ref>Ian Richard Netton Encyclopaedia of Islam Routledge 2013 Template:ISBN page 376</ref> Soothsayers (kāhin) are credited with the ability to ask jinn about things of the past, since their lives are believed to last longer than that of humans.<ref>Morrow, John Andrew (27 November 2013) Islamic Images and Ideas: Essays on sacred symbolism, McFarland, ISBN 978-1-476-61288-1</ref>Template:Rp

Common beliefs regarding sorcery and commanding jinn are attested in ibn al-Nadim's Kitāb al-Fihrist.<ref name="ReferenceB">Travis Zadeh Commanding Demons and Jinn: The Sorcerer in Early Islamic Thought Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2014</ref>Template:Rp Since he locates such practises not as a branch of science or philosophy, but rather in a chapter about stories and fables, the author might not have believed in the efficiency of sorcery himself.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>Template:Rp He reports that the art of commanding jinn and demons is traced back to Solomon and Jamshid. The first who would have practised a lawful method of incantation is supposed to be Abū Naṣr Aḥmad b. Hilāl during the Umayyad period.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>Template:Rp Ibn Nadim explains lawful and unlawful subjugating of jinn and demons as distinct: While the former controls the jinn by the power of God's divine names, the latter pleases demons and devils by prohibited offerings and sinful acts.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>Template:Rp According to al-Jāḥiẓ, ibn Hilāl is said to have the power to summon demons and jinn<ref name="ReferenceB"/>Template:Rp and further claimed to have married a daughter of Satan and begotten a child.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>Template:Rp

There is evidence that subjugation of spirits, jinn, and demons, was also cultivated by various Islamic authorities. Al-Ṭabasī, who was considered a reliable muḥadīth (scholar of ḥadīth) and pious ascetic, wrote an extensive treatise (al-Shāmil fī al-baḥr al-kāmil) on subjugating demons and jinn.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>Template:Rp According to Zakariya al-Qazwini, it was well known that jinn obeyed al-Ṭabasī. He gives an example, that al-Ṭabasī demonstrated the jinn to the famous scholar Ghazālī, who saw them as shadows on the wall.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>Template:Rp He professes that jinn only obey when the individual turns away from the temptations of creation and devoting oneself towards God.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>Template:Rp The al-Shāmil gives detailed instructions for preparations of various incantations. Unlike, for example in the writings of al-Razi, the al-Shāmil has no direct link to Hellenistic or Hermetic magic or philosophy.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>Template:Rp Magic was also used in the Ottoman Empire as evident from the Talismanic shirts of Murad III.<ref>Felek, Özgen. "Fears, Hopes, and Dreams: The Talismanic Shirts of Murād III." Arabica 64.3-4 (2017): 647-672.</ref>

Related to the occult traditions in Islamic culture is the belief in the "Seven kings of the Week", also known as rūḥāiya ulia (higher spirits; angels) and rūḥāiya sufula (lower spirits; demons). These beings are, for example, invoked for the preparation of Magic squares.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Lebling–2010"/>Template:Rp This belief is attested by the Book of Wonders.<ref name=Carboni-2013/> It contains artistic depictions of several supernatural beings (demons, jinn, the evil eye, fever (Huma, Arabic: حمى), devils, lilith, etc.).<ref name="Taheri, Alireza 2017"/><ref name=Carboni-2013/> Some of these beings indicate that the work connects Hebrew, Christian, and Islamic magical traditions.<ref name=Carboni-2013/> The original work is attributed to al-Bakhi, who founded a system of astrological magic based on Neo-Platonic thought.<ref name=Carboni-2013/> Although many pages are damaged, it is possible to reconstruct their meanings from Ottoman copies.<ref name=Carboni-2013/> Each king is depicted with helpers and associated talismanic symbols.<ref name=Carboni-2013/>

Comparative mythology

File:Compendium rarissimum totius Artis Magicae. Wellcome L0027769.jpg

The sheyd אַשְמְדּאָי (Ašmodai) in bird-like form, with typical rooster feet, as depicted in Compendium rarissimum totius Artis Magicae, 1775

In comparative mythology and historical context studies, Quranic studies scholars discuss the relationship between Islamic notions of jinn and earlier Jewish and Christian ideas of supernatural beings or preternatural creatures, especially those of angels, spirits, and demons. It is widely agreed that the belief in jinn was a common element of the culture out of which the Quran came.<ref name=":0" />

One question has concerned the degree to Quranic jinn might be compared to fallen angels in Christian traditions, although issues with this view are that jinn are not identified as "angels" and that descriptions of angels do not involve their flying up the sky to eavesdrop on heavenly secrets (unlike jinn who do so in Surah 72).<ref name="Azaiez-Reynolds-Tesei-Zafer-nd"> Template:Cite book Template:ISBN </ref> Patricia Crone notes that, like jinn, the demons of the Testament of Solomon ascend to the firmament and eavesdrop on heavenly secrets; as did demons of Zoroastrian cosmology, who in addition encounter a heavenly defense systems (as did Islamic jinn).<ref name="Azaiez-Reynolds-Tesei-Zafer-nd" /> Similar statements are also found in the Talmud (Berakhot 18b) and the 8th-century Scolion of Theodore bar Konai.Template:Sfn Pierre Lory states that jinn are "in no way comparable to angels", and must be understood as distinct from the Quranic motif of fallen angels.<ref>Hidden Intercourse: Eros and Sexuality in the History of Western Esotericism. (2008). Niederlande: Brill. p. 53</ref>

Counterparts to Quranic jinn have been identified in the Book of Jubilees, where spirits created by God, associated with fire, having an identified leader (Mastema), may either aid or harm humans, and suffer a similar fate as the jinn.<ref name=":02">Template:Cite journal</ref> The Shedim of the Tanakh are said to resemble jinn.<ref name="YALÇINKAYA, Mustafa 2020">YALÇINKAYA, Mustafa. "İLÂHİ DİNLERİN CİN KAVRAMI ALGISI: GENEL BİR YAKLAŞIM." PEARSON JOURNAL 5.7 (2020): 170-183.</ref><ref name="Lebling–2010"/>Template:Rp Like jinn, among a class of beings of Jewish mythology/belief (jnun, shedim, etc.), there is a tradition of ritual exorcism and negotiations that differs from that of traditional Jewish cure of spirit possession associated with ghosts (Dybbuk).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Jinn have also been compared to preternatural beings called gny' in inscriptions from Palmyra<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> as well as broader late antique demonologies.Template:Sfn

See also

• Genies in popular culture
• The Case of the Animals versus Man
• Demon (disambiguation)
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• Ifrit
• Marid
• Nāga
• Nasnas
• Preta
• Qareen
• Shadow person
• Superstitions in Muslim societies
• Three Thousand Years of Longing, a 2022 film starring Idris Elba as a djinn.
• Throne Verse
• Uthra
• Will-o'-the-wisp
• Yōkai

References

Sources

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Further reading

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External links

• Etymology of genie