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Karelian language

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Template:Short description Template:Distinguish {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other Template:Infobox ethnonym

Karelian (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx; Template:Langx; Template:Langx) is a Finnic language spoken mainly by the Karelian people in the Russian Republic of Karelia. Linguistically, Karelian is closely related to the Finnish dialects spoken in eastern Finland, and some Finnish linguists have even classified Karelian as a dialect of Finnish, but nowadays it is widely considered a separate language. Karelian is not to be confused with the Southeastern dialects of Finnish, sometimes referred to as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("Karelian dialects") in Finland.<ref name=krl2 /> In the Russian 2020–2021 census, around 9,000 people spoke Karelian natively, but around 14,000 said they were able to speak the language.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> There are around 11,000 speakers of Karelian in Finland,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and around 30,000 people in Finland have at least some knowledge of Karelian.<ref name="Karjala">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The Karelian language is a group of two supradialects. The two supradialects are Karelian Proper (which comprises Northern Karelian and South Karelian (including the Tver enclave dialects)) and Olonets Karelian (Livvi Karelian). The Ludic language is sometimes considered one more dialect of Karelian, sometimes a separate language. There is no single standard Karelian language, so each writer writes in Karelian according to their own dialectal form. All variants are written with the Latin-based Karelian alphabet, though the Cyrillic script has been used in the past.

Based upon toponymic and historical evidence, a form of Karelian was also spoken among the extinct Bjarmians in the 15th century.<ref name=":0"/>

ClassificationEdit

Karelian is a Finnic language<ref>[1]</ref> from the Uralic language family, and is closely related to Finnish.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Finnish and Karelian have common ancestry in the Proto-Karelian language spoken in the coast of Lake Ladoga in the Iron Age, and Karelian forms a dialect continuum with the Eastern dialects of Finnish.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Earlier, some Finnish linguists classified Karelian as a dialect of Finnish, sometimes known in older Finnish literature as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('Border Karelian dialects'), but today Karelian is seen as a distinct language. Besides Karelian and Finnish, the Finnic subgroup also includes Estonian and some minority languages spoken around the Baltic Sea.

UsageEdit

Karelian is a language in danger of extinction, with 45% of speakers being over 65 years old and with around 1% of speakers being under 15 years of age. The language is also not understood or spoken at all by a majority of the people in the Republic of Karelia, with around 43% of people using the language.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Geographic distributionEdit

File:2.2b-Karelian-and-Ludic current.png
Current distribution of Karelian and Ludic<ref name=map1>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=map2>Rantanen, Timo, Vesakoski, Outi, Ylikoski, Jussi, & Tolvanen, Harri. (2021). Geographical database of the Uralic languages (v1.0) [Data set]. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4784188</ref>

In Russia, Karelian is spoken by about 13,880 people (2020),<ref name="2020census"/> mainly in the Republic of Karelia, although notable Karelian-speaking communities can also be found in the Tver region (Tver Oblast) northwest of Moscow. Previously, it was estimated that there were 5,000 speakers in Finland, mainly belonging to the older generations,<ref name=krl2>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> but more recent estimates have put the number of people with even slight knowledge of the language at 30,000.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Due to post-World War II mobility and internal migration, Karelians now live scattered throughout Finland, and Karelian is no longer spoken as a local community language.<ref name=krl3>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Official statusEdit

In the Republic of Karelia, Karelian has official status as a minority language,<ref name="minorityref"/> and since the late 1990s there have been moves to pass special language legislation, which would give Karelian an official status on par with Russian.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Karelians in Tver Oblast have a national-cultural autonomy which guarantees the use of the Karelian language in schools and mass media.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Dead link</ref> In Finland, Karelian has official status as a non-regional national minority language within the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Supradialects and dialectsEdit

The Karelian language has two main varieties, which can be considered as supradialects or separate languages: Karelian Proper, which comprises Northern Karelian and South Karelian (including the Tver enclave dialects); and Olonets Karelian. These varieties constitute a continuum of dialects, the ends of which are no longer mutually intelligible.<ref name=krl3 /> Varieties can be further divided into individual dialects:<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web

}}</ref>

File:Karelian dialects Vepkar English 2019.png
Scheme of the supradialects and dialects of the Karelian language, VepKar corpus, 2019.Template:Sfn

Template:Tree list

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Template:Tree list/end

The Ludic language, spoken along the easternmost edge of Karelian Republic, is in the Russian research tradition counted as a third main dialect of Karelian, though Ludic shows strong relationship also to Veps, and it is today also considered a separate language.

PhonologyEdit

VowelsEdit

MonophthongsEdit

Like Finnish, the Karelian language has 8 phonemic vowel qualities, totalling 11 vowel phonemes when vowel length is considered:

Front Back
Unrounded Rounded
Close Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Mid Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Open Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme

Only the close vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may occur long.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The original Proto-Finnic long mid and open vowels have been diphthongized: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (as also in Finnish); *aa, *ää > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (as also in Savonian dialects of Finnish).

DiphthongsEdit

North Karelian<ref name=north>П.М. Зайков. Грамматика карельского языка. Петрозаводск: Периодика, 1999</ref> and Olonets Karelian<ref name=olonets>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> have 21 diphthongs:

Front-harmonic Neutral Back-harmonic
Front+neutral Front+front Neutral+front Neutral+back Back+neutral Back+back
Open to close äi äy ai au
Mid to close öi öy ey ei eu oi ou
Close yi iy iu ui
Close to mid yö ie uo
Close to open yä iä ua

TriphthongsEdit

In addition to the diphthongs North Karelian has a variety of triphthongs:<ref name=north />

Front-harmonic Neutral Back-harmonic
Front+neutral Front Neutral+front Neutral+back Back+neutral Back
Close-mid-close lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
Close-open-close lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}

Olonets Karelian has only the triphthongs {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name=olonets />

ConsonantsEdit

There are 20 non-palatalized consonants in Karelian with their own single grapheme, and 2 are represented with multigraphs:

Labial Dental/
Alveolar 		Postalv./
Palatal 		Velar Glottal
Nasal Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Plosive voiceless Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
voiced Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Affricate voiceless (Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme)Template:Efn Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
voiced Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Fricative voiceless (Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme)Template:Efn Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
voiced Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Trill Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Approximant Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme

Template:Notelist

Some palatalized consonants exist: /lʲ nʲ sʲ tʲ/ in Karelian Proper (North), /dʲ lʲ nʲ rʲ sʲ tʲ/ (/zʲ/ also exists, but only in loanwords) in Olonets Karelian, /dʲ lʲ nʲ rʲ sʲ tʲ zʲ/ in Ludic and Tver Karelian. Palatalized labials are also present in some loanwords: North Karelian b'urokratti 'bureaucrat', Livvi b'urokruattu 'bureaucrat', kip'atku 'boiling water', sv'oklu 'beet', Tver Karelian kip'atka 'boiling water', s'v'okla 'beet' (from Russian бюрократ, кипяток, свёкла).

Voiced velar nasal /Template:IPA link/ (eng) is present before /g/, /k/ and /kk/, and the combination is represented with multigraphs Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme or Template:Grapheme. Karelian Proper does not geminate /ŋ/ in consonant gradation unlike Finnish: kengät 'shoes' pronounces as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} instead of Finnish {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Olonets, Ludic, and Tver Karelian have the voiced affricate /Template:IPA link/, represented in writing by the digraph Template:Grapheme.

Writing systemEdit

File:Birch-bark letter 292 real.jpg
Birch-bark letter No. 292, early 13th century
File:Matthew Karelian 1820.jpg
Translation of the Gospel of Matthew into Karelian, 1820

AlphabetEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

Karelian is today written using a Latin alphabet consisting of 29 characters. It extends the ISO basic Latin alphabet with the additional letters Č, Š, Ž, Ä, Ö and ' and excludes the letters Q, W and X.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This unified alphabet is used to write all Karelian varieties including Tver Karelian. The very few texts that were published in Karelian from medieval times through the 19th century used the Cyrillic alphabet. With the establishment of the Soviet Union, Finnish, written with the Latin alphabet, became official. However, from 1938 to 1940 Karelian written in Cyrillic replaced Finnish as an official language of the Karelian ASSR (see "History" below).

Example from Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Cyrillic Karelian script, transliteration and translation:<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Cyrillic:

Каи рахвас роиттахeс вäллиннÿ да тазаарвозинну омас арвос да оигeвуксис. Ёгахизeлe хeис он аннeтту миeли да оматундо да хeил вäлтäмäттäх пидäÿ олла кeскeнäх, куи вeллил.

Latin:

Kai rahvas roittahes vällinny da taza-arvozinnu omas arvos da oigevuksis. Jogahizele heis on annettu mieli da omatundo da heil vältämättäh pidäy olla keskenäh, kui vellil.

Translation:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

OrthographyEdit

Karelian is written with orthography similar to Finnish orthography. However, some features of the Karelian language and thus orthography are different from Finnish:

  • The Karelian system of sibilants is extensive; in Finnish, there is only one: {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
  • Phonemic voicing occurs.
  • Karelian retains palatalization, usually denoted with an apostrophe (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
  • The letter 'ü' may replace 'y' in some texts.
  • The letter 'c' denotes {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, although 'ts' is used also. 'c' is more likely in Russian loan words.
Sibilants
Letter Alt. IPA Olonets Karelian Tver Karelian North Karelian Finnish
č ch main}} čoma, seiče šoma, šeiččimen šoma, šeiččemen soma, seitsemän
s s main}} se še še se
š sh main}} nišku niška niska niska
z z main}} tazavaldu tažavalda tašavalta tasavalta
ž zh main}} kiža, liedžu kiza, liedžu kisa kisa, lie(t)su

/c/ and /č/ have length levels, which is not found in standard Finnish. For example, in Kalevala, Lönnrot's orthography {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} hides the fact that the pronunciation of the original material is actually {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, with palatalization of the affricate. The exact details depend on the dialect, though. See Yleiskielen ts:n murrevastineet.

Karelian actually uses {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as a voiced alveolar fricative. (In Finnish, z is a foreign spelling for {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.) The plosives {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be voiced. (In most Finnish dialects, they are not differentiated from the unvoiced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Furthermore, in Karelian except North Karelian, voiced consonants occur also in native words, not just in loans as in standard Finnish.)

The sounds represented by č, š and ž are native to Karelian, but not Finnish. Speakers of Finnish do not distinguish {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} from {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, nor {{#invoke:IPA|main}} from {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (medial) or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (initial). For example, the native Karelian words {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} are {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in standard Finnish.

HistoryEdit

File:Karelian tver latin 1930 alphabet.gif
Tver Karelian in 1930 Latin alphabet
File:Djadja Rimusan Suarnat.jpg
Дядя Римусан Суарнат (Djadja Rimusan Suarnat), Tales of Uncle Remus in Karelian Cyrillic alphabet, 1939

PrehistoryEdit

As all other Finnic languages, Karelian descends from Proto-Finnic, which in turn ultimately descends from Proto-Uralic. The most recent ancestor of the Karelian dialects is the language variety spoken in the 9th century at the western shores of Lake Ladoga, known as Old Karelian (Finnish: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).

Karelian is usually considered a part of the Eastern Finnic subgroup. It has been proposed that Late Proto-Finnic evolved into three dialects: Northern dialect, spoken in western Finland; Southern dialect, spoken in the area of modern-day Estonia and northern Latvia, and Eastern dialect, spoken in the regions east of the Southern dialect. In the 6th century, Eastern dialect arrived at the western shores of Lake Ladoga, and in the 9th century, Northern dialect reached the same region. These two dialects blended together and formed Old Karelian.<ref name=history1>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Medieval periodEdit

By the end of the 13th century, speakers of Old Karelian had reached the Savo region in eastern Finland, increasingly mixing with population from western Finland. In 1323, Karelia was divided between Sweden and Novgorod according to the Treaty of Nöteborg, which started to slowly separate descendants of the Proto-Karelian language from each other. In the areas occupied by Sweden, Old Karelian started to develop into dialects of Finnish: Savonian dialects and Southeastern dialects.

Birch bark letter no. 292 from the early 13th century is the first known document in any Finnic language.Template:Sfn It was found in 1957 by a Soviet expedition, led by Artemiy Artsikhovskiy in the Nerev excavation on the left coast side of Novgorod.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The language used in the document is thought to be an archaic form of the language spoken in Olonets Karelia, a dialect of the Karelian language.<ref>Itämerensuomalaista kirjoitusta 1200-luvulta Template:Webarchive Template:In lang</ref> A later manuscript, no. 403 (second half of the 14th century), apparently belonging to a tax collector, includes a short glossary of Karelian words and their translations.<ref>Грамота №403</ref>

In the regions ruled by Novgorod, the protolanguage started to evolve into Karelian language. In 1617 Novgorod lost parts of Karelia to Sweden in the Treaty of Stolbovo, which led the Karelian-speaking population of the occupied areas to flee from their homes. This gave rise to the Karelian speaking population in the Tver and Valday regions.<ref name=history1 />

19th centuryEdit

In the 19th century, a few books were published in Karelian using the Cyrillic script, notably A Translation of some Prayers and a Shortened Catechism into North Karelian and Olonets (Aunus) dialects in 1804, and the gospel of St. Matthew in South Karelian Tver dialect, in 1820. Karelian literature in 19th century Russia remained limited to a few primers, songbooks and leaflets.<ref name=taagepera>Rein Taagepera, The Finno-Ugric republics and the Russian state, p.111</ref>

Soviet periodEdit

In 1921, the first all-Karelian congress under the Soviet regime debated whether Finnish or Karelian should be the official language (next to Russian) of the new "Karelian Labour Commune" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}Template:Citation needed in Cyrillic Karelian), which two years later would become the Karelian ASSR. Finnish communists as well as ethnic Finns from North America, who came to live in Soviet Karelia, dominated the political discourse, as they were in general far better educated than local Karelians. They favored the use of Finnish, which had just been through an 80-year period of standardization based on a variety of dialects across Finland — and the Finns saw Karelian simply as additional Finnish dialects. In the end Finnish was established as the official "local" language.<ref name="austin">Template:Cite journal</ref>

An intense program of Finnicization, but called "Karelianization", began and Finnish-language schools were established across Soviet Karelia. Newspapers, literary journals were established and Russian literature was translated into Finnish, while much literature from Soviet Karelia in Finnish was published.<ref name="austin"/>

While this was happening in Soviet Karelia, in 1931–33, a Karelian literary language using the Latin alphabet was standardized for the Tver Karelian community of about 127,000 people, hundreds of kilometers to the south.<ref name="austin"/>

Between 1935 and 1938 the Finnish-dominated leadership of Soviet Karelia including leader Edvard Gylling, was removed from power, killed or sent to concentration camps. The Finnish language was branded a language of the bourgeois Finnish society in Finland proper, and was later regarded as a "fascist" language of the Finnish enemy.<ref name="austin"/>

From early 1938 to April 1940, the Soviet authorities ceased publication in Finnish, all Finnish-language schools were closed and the children were prohibited from speaking Finnish even during recess. The Soviet government replaced Finnish in the Karelian ASSR with Karelian written in the Cyrillic alphabet.<ref name=taagepera/>

A new form of standardized Karelian was hurriedly introduced in 1938, written in Cyrillic, with only nine grammatical cases, and with a very large and increasing number of words taken directly from Russian but with Karelian grammatical endings. During this period about 200 titles were published, including educational materials, children's books, readers, Party and public affairs documents, the literary journal Karelia. The newspaper Karjalan Sanomat was written in this new Karelian Cyrillic, rather than in Finnish. Karelians who did not speak Russian could not understand this new official language due to the amount of Russian words, for example, the phrase "Which party led the revolution" in this form of Karelian was given as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) where the word for party, led, and revolution are all Russian words with Karelian grammatical endings, whereas the Finnish equivalent words have completely different roots: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref name="austin"/>

After the Winter War, in April 1940, political considerations changed again. The USSR established the Karelo-Finnish SSR with the idea that Finland proper would eventually be annexed to the USSR as part of that Republic. Finnish, written in the Latin alphabet, was once again made the official "local" language of Soviet Karelia, alongside Russian.<ref name=taagepera/><ref name="austin"/>

In the 1980s, publishing began again in various adaptations of the Latin alphabet for Olonets Karelian and the White Sea and Tver dialects of Karelian Proper.

Recent eventsEdit

Since the 1990s the Union of Karelian people started to organize various projects to popularize the Karelian language in Karelia and Finland.

In 2007 a standard alphabet was adopted to write all dialects (Tver Karelian adopted it in 2017).

In 2008, Joensuu University launched Finland's first Karelian language professorship, in order to save the language. A year later, Finland's first Karelian language nest (pre-school immersion group) was established in the town of Nurmes.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Croatian singer Jurica Popović collaborated with Tilna Tolvaneen on lyrics for his 1999 song "H.O.T. Hold On To Your Tradition", which are partly in Karelian.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Media in KarelianEdit

  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is published in Olonets Karelian.
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is published in North Karelian dialect.
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is published in Tver Karelian dialect.
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – A monthly Karelian-language journal published by Karjalan Kielen Seura in Finland.
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – News articles and a weekly radio news program in Karelian are published by the Finnish Broadcasting Company.

Examples of Karelian supradialectsEdit

North Karelian (White Sea Karelian)Edit

A sample from the book {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}:

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

(Translation: Old people used to say that the swan is born of man. Swans are always paired up. When one is shot, the other weeps for it for a long time. Yet the swan is a sacred bird. Nobody ever dared to shoot them, for that was a sin. Swans come to us in the spring and in the autumn they leave again for the south. They fly in large flocks. When they left, it was a sign that winter was near.)

Olonets KarelianEdit

Sample 1Edit

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

(English version: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>)

Sample 2Edit

A sample from the book {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Note the older alphabet:

Olonets Karelian<ref>Bogdanova, Leena; Ščerbakova, Tamara. Karjalan kielen harjoituskogomus III–IV luokku Livvin murdehel. Petroskoi «Periodika», 2004, p. 14.</ref> Standard Finnish English translation
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} There is beautiful nature in Karelia. Tall birches,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} green spruces and Scots pines decorate the forests.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Every place is full of berries and mushrooms.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} If only one picked them! The lakes and rivers, too, are full of fish:
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} there is pike, carp bream, ide, burbot, zander, whitefish.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Take a fishing rod and run to the lake!

Tver KarelianEdit

File:Tver dialects of Karelian and VepKar corpus by Irina Novak 2018.webm
Irina Novak speaks about the Karelian language and Karelians. Irina talks in Tolmachevsky dialect (one of the three Tver Karelian dialects, it is one of the Karelian Proper dialects). KarRC RAS, 2018. See subtitles in Karelian language.

A sample from the book {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}:

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

(Translation: Puasinkoi is a small Karelian village in the Tver region. There are forty houses. The village lies by a river. The river flows slowly—that's why it's called Tihvinitša. The surrounding region is very beautiful.—(My) father told (me): once, many hundreds of years ago, Karelians from North-Karelia came there. They cut down the forest and founded this village. And even now, there are houses in the village, which have been built from the trees of the old forest.)

See alsoEdit

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ReferencesEdit

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SourcesEdit

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Further readingEdit

External linksEdit

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