Kimchi
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Kimchi (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Korean/auto) is a traditional Korean side dish (banchan) consisting of salted and fermented vegetables, most often napa cabbage or Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including gochugaru (Korean chili powder), spring onions, garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (salted seafood).<ref name="Britannica">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Chin">Template:Cite news</ref> Kimchi is also used in a variety of soups and stews. Kimchi is a staple food in Korean cuisine and is eaten as a side dish with almost every Korean meal.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite journal</ref>
There are hundreds of different types of kimchi made with different vegetables as the main ingredients.<ref name="Chin" /> Such as baechu-kimchi, Kkakdugi, Chonggak-kimchi, and Oi-sobagi. Traditionally, winter kimchi, called gimjang, was stored in large earthenware fermentation vessels, called onggi, in the ground to prevent freezing during the winter months and to keep it cool enough to slow down the fermentation process during summer months.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite journal</ref> The process of making kimchi was called kimjang and was a way for the whole village to participate. The vessels are also kept outdoors in special terraces called jangdokdae. In contemporary times, household kimchi refrigerators are more commonly used.<ref name="Chin" />
EtymologyEdit
JiEdit
The term ji ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), which has its origins in archaic Korean dihi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), has been used to refer to kimchi since ancient times.<ref name="Lee">Template:Cite news</ref> The sound change can be roughly described as:<ref name="Hong_G">Template:Cite journal</ref>
- dihi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) > di ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) > ji ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
The Middle Korean form dihi is found in several books from the Joseon period (1392–1897).<ref name="Uichim">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Sin">Template:Cite book (from the original Jiālǐ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} by Zhu Xi)</ref> In Modern Korean, the word remains as the suffix -ji in the standard language (as in jjanji, seokbak-ji),<ref name="SKLD_jjan">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="SKLD_seokbak">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and as the suffix -ji as well as the noun ji in Gyeongsang and Jeolla dialects.<ref name="SKLD_ji">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The unpalatalized form di is preserved in P'yŏngan dialect.<ref name="SKLD_di">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
KimchiEdit
Kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is the accepted word in both North and South Korean standard languages. Earlier forms of the word include Template:Transliteration (Template:Script/Korean), a Middle Korean transcription of the Sino-Korean word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (literally "submerged vegetable"). Template:Transliteration appears in Sohak Eonhae,<ref name="Jeong_G">Template:Cite wikisource</ref> the 16th-century Korean rendition of the Chinese book, Xiaoxue.<ref name="Zhu">Template:Cite wikisource</ref> Sound changes from Middle Korean to Modern Korean regarding the word can be described as:<ref name="SKLD">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Template:Transliteration (Template:Script/Korean; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) > Template:Transliteration (Template:Script/Korean) > Template:Transliteration (Template:Script/Korean) > Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) > Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
The aspirated first consonant of Template:Transliteration became unaspirated in Template:Transliteration, then underwent palatalization in Template:Transliteration. The word then became Template:Transliteration with the loss of the vowel Template:Transliteration (Template:Script/Korean) in Korean language, then kimchi, with the depalatalized word-initial consonant. In Modern Korean, the hanja characters {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} are pronounced chimchae ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), and are not used to refer to kimchi, or anything else. The word kimchi is not considered as a Sino-Korean word.<ref name=SKLD /> Older forms of the word are retained in many regional dialects: jimchae (Jeolla, Hamgyŏng dialects),<ref name="SKLD_jimchae">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> jimchi (Chungcheong, Gangwon, Gyeonggi, Gyeongsang, Hamgyŏng, Jeolla dialects),<ref name="SKLD_jimchi">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and dimchi (P'yŏngan dialect).<ref name="SKLD_dimchi">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The English word "kimchi" perhaps originated from kimch'i, the McCune–Reischauer transcription of the Korean word kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).
HistoryEdit
Early historyEdit
Samguk Sagi, a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, mentions the pickle jar used to ferment vegetables, which indicates that fermented vegetables were commonly eaten during this time.<ref name="Hui">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Gim">Template:Cite wikisource</ref> Attributed to the earliest kimchi, the Goguryeo people were skilled at fermenting and widely consumed fermented food.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> During the Silla dynasty (57 BCE – CE 935), kimchi became prevalent as Buddhism caught on throughout the nation and fostered a vegetarian lifestyle.<ref name="btpickle-201309">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The pickling of vegetables was an ideal method, prior to refrigerators, that helped to preserve the lifespan of foods. In Korea, kimchi was made during the winter by fermenting vegetables, and burying them in the ground in traditional brown ceramic pots called onggi. This labor further allowed a bonding among women within the family.<ref name="btpickle-201309"/> A poem on Korean radish written by Yi Gyubo, a 13th-century literatus, shows that radish kimchi was common in Goryeo (918–1392).<ref name="Pettid">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Yi_G">Template:Cite bookTemplate:Dead link</ref><ref name="Breidt">Template:Cite book</ref>
Kimchi has been a staple in Korean culture, but historical versions were not a spicy dish.<ref>Kimchi. (2016). Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 1p. 1.</ref> Early records of kimchi do not mention garlic or chili pepper.<ref name="KCIS">Template:Cite book</ref> Chili peppers, now a standard ingredient in kimchi, had been unknown in Korea until the early seventeenth century due to it being a New World crop.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Chili peppers, originally native to the Americas, were introduced to East Asia by Portuguese traders.<ref name="KCIS" /><ref name="Park">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Marianski">Template:Cite book</ref> The first mention of chili pepper is found in Jibong yuseol, an encyclopedia published in 1614.<ref name="Hui" /><ref name="Yi_S">Template:Cite wikisource</ref> Sallim gyeongje, a 17‒18th century book on farm management, wrote on kimchi with chili peppers.<ref name="Hui" /><ref name="Hong_M">Template:Cite book</ref> However, it was not until the 19th century that the use of chili peppers in kimchi became widespread.<ref name="Cho">Template:Cite journal</ref> Recipes from the early 19th century closely resemble today's kimchi.<ref name="Jeong_H">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Hong_S">Template:Cite book</ref>
A 1766 book, Jeungbo sallim gyeongje, reports kimchi varieties made with myriad ingredients, including chonggak-kimchi (kimchi made with chonggak radish), oi-sobagi (with cucumber), seokbak-ji (with jogi-jeot), and dongchimi.<ref name="Hui" /><ref name="Yu">Template:Cite book</ref> However, napa cabbage was introduced to Korea only at the end of 19th century,<ref name="Cho" /> and whole-cabbage kimchi similar to its current form is described in Siuijeonseo, a cookbook published around that time.<ref name="Sim">Template:Cite book {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Modern historyEdit
During South Korea's involvement in the Vietnam War, the industrialization and commercialization of kimchi production became increasingly important because the Korean government wanted to provide rations for its troops. The Korean government requested American help to ensure that South Korean troops, reportedly "desperate" for the food, could obtain it in the field.<ref name="Choe">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=":8">Template:Citation</ref>
In 2008, South Korean scientists created a special low-calorie, vitamin-rich "space kimchi" for Yi So-yeon, the first Korean astronaut, to take to space. It was bacteria-free, unlike normal kimchi in which bacteria are essential for fermentation. It was feared that cosmic rays might mutate the bacteria.<ref name="History of Kimchi, the Korean soul food. Kimchi fun facts we BAECHU didn't know.">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
South Korea developed programs for adult Korean adoptees to return to South Korea and learn about what it means to be Korean. One of these programs was learning how to make kimchi.<ref>Template:Cite AV media</ref>
1996 kimchi standard dispute with JapanEdit
In 1996, Korea protested against Japanese commercial production of kimchi arguing that the Japanese-produced product (kimuchi, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) was different from kimchi. In particular, Japanese kimchi was not fermented and was more similar to asazuke. Korea lobbied for an international standard from the Codex Alimentarius, an organization associated with the World Health Organization that defines voluntary standards for food preparation for international trade purposes.<ref name="LAT" /><ref name="NYT">Template:Cite news</ref> In 2001, the Codex Alimentarius published a voluntary standard defining kimchi as "a fermented food that uses salted napa cabbages as its main ingredient mixed with seasonings, and goes through a lactic acid production process at a low temperature", but which neither specified a minimum amount of fermentation nor forbade the use of any additives.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Following the inclusion of the kimchi standard, kimchi exports in Korea did increase, but so did the production of kimchi in China and the import of Chinese kimchi into Korea.<ref name=":8" />
2010 Kimchi ingredient price crisisEdit
Due to heavy rainfall shortening the harvesting time for cabbage and other main ingredients for kimchi in 2010, the price of kimchi ingredients and kimchi itself rose greatly. Korean and international newspapers described the rise in prices as a national crisis.<ref name="EconomistOct72010">Template:Cite news</ref> Some restaurants stopped offering kimchi as a free side dish, which The New York Times compared to an American hamburger restaurant no longer offering free ketchup.<ref name="nyt2010">Template:Cite news</ref> In response to the kimchi price crisis, the South Korean government announced the temporary reduction of tariffs on imported cabbage to coincide with the kimjang season.<ref name="EconomistOct72010" />
Intangible Cultural Heritage of HumanityEdit
Kimchi-related items have been inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by both South and North Korea. This makes kimchi the second intangible heritage that was submitted by two countries, the other one being the folk song "Arirang" which was also submitted by both the Koreas.<ref name="worl_UNES">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> "The culture of kimjang" was the subject of the Intangible Cultural Heritage: kimchi is not registered by itself.
Submitted by South Korea (inscribed 2013)Edit
Kimjang, the tradition of making and sharing kimchi that usually takes place in late autumn, was added to the list as "Gimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea". The practice of Gimjang reaffirms Korean identity and strengthens family cooperation. Gimjang is also an important reminder for many Koreans that human communities need to live in harmony with nature.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Submitted by North Korea (inscribed 2015)Edit
North Korean kimchi-making was inscribed on the list in December 2015<ref name="worl_UNES" /> as "Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea".<ref name="unes_Trad">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> North Korean kimchi tends to be less spicy and less red than South Korean kimchi.<ref name="yout_Nort">Template:Cite video</ref> Seafood is used less often and less salt is added. Additional sugar is used to help with fermentation in the cold climate.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Kimchi DayEdit
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In the United States, the states California, Virginia, Maryland and New York, and the capital city Washington D.C. have issued proclamations declaring 22 November as 'Kimchi Day' to recognize the importance of the dish as part of Korean culture.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
2012 effective ban by China of Korean kimchi importsEdit
Since 2012, the Chinese government has effectively banned the import of Korean kimchi through government regulations. Ignoring the standards of kimchi outlined by the Codex Alimentarius, China defined kimchi as a derivative of one of its own cuisines, called pao cai.<ref name="seoul.co.kr">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, due to significantly different preparation techniques from pao cai, kimchi has significantly more lactic acid bacteria through its fermentation process, which exceeds China's regulations.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Since 2012, commercial exports of Korean kimchi to China has reached zero; the only minor amounts of exports accounting for Korean kimchi are exhibition events held in China.<ref name="seoul.co.kr" />
2017 boycott in ChinaEdit
A 2017 article in The New York Times said that anti-Korean sentiment in China had risen after South Korea's acceptance of the deployment of THAAD in South Korea. Government-run Chinese news media encouraged the boycott of South Korean goods, and some Chinese nationalists vowed not to eat kimchi.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The move was criticized by other Chinese nationalists, who noted that China officially considered Koreans an integral ethnic group in the multinational state, and that kimchi is also indigenous to the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture.<ref name="kimchi-yanbian">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
2020 kimchi ISO standard dispute with ChinaEdit
In November 2020, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) posted ISO 24220:2020, new regulations for the making of pao cai.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The same month, BBC News reported that Chinese news organization Global Times claimed the new ISO standard was "an international standard for the kimchi industry led by China" despite the standard clearly stating "this document does not apply to kimchi".<ref name="BBC2020-11-30">Template:Cite news</ref> This sparked strong anger from South Korean media and people,<ref>Template:Multiref2</ref> as well as the responses from some Chinese people who argued China held the right to claim kimchi as their own.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
However clarifications from both countries, later revealed that the controversy was triggered over a misunderstanding of a translation of the Chinese word pao cai.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> After the controversy emerged, Global Times explained it was simply a "misunderstanding in translation", where they had meant to refer to Chinese pao cai, and their Chinese language article had used the term pao cai, but their English language version had "erroneously" translated it as "kimchi", and that the dispute arose from being innocently "lost in translation".<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> They acknowledged that kimchi and pao cai are two different foods, where "Kimchi refers to a kind of fermented cabbage dish that plays an integral role in Korean cuisine, while pàocài, or Sichuan pàocài, refers to pickled vegetables that are popular originally in Southwest China's Sichuan Province, but now in most parts of northern China."<ref name=":7">Template:Cite news</ref> Global Times also reported that Baidu Baike, a Chinese online encyclopedia, removed the controversial phrase "Korean kimchi originated from China" after the request.<ref name=":7" />
According to Sojin Lim, co-director of the Institute of Korean Studies of the University of Central Lancashire, Korean kimchi is often called pao cai in China, but China has its own Sichuanese fermented vegetable dish that it also calls pao cai.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 2021, the South Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism subsequently presented the guidelines to set the term xīnqí Template:Nowrap as the new proper Chinese translation of kimchi, while pàocài was no longer the acceptable translation.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> However, CNN reported that the new Chinese translation of kimchi was unpopular with both Chinese and Korean netizens, and that some Chinese people complained that they do recognize the difference between dishes, but don't like to be told how to translate Kimchi in Chinese. There were also complaints among Koreans that Korea is appropriating their own traditional culture for the Chinese, by trying to promote a Chinese term for Kimchi which doesn't have an authentic Korean sound.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
IngredientsEdit
Kimchi varieties are determined by the main vegetable ingredients and the mix of seasoning used to flavor the kimchi.
VegetablesEdit
Cabbages (napa cabbages, bomdong, headed cabbages) and radishes (Korean radishes, ponytail radishes, gegeol radishes, yeolmu radishes) are the most commonly used kimchi vegetables.<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="Chin" /> Other kimchi vegetables include: aster, balloon flower roots, burdock roots, celery, chamnamul, cilantro, cress, crown daisy greens, cucumber, eggplant, garlic chives, garlic scapes, ginger, Korean angelica-tree shoots, Korean parsley, Korean wild chive, lotus roots, mustard greens, onions, perilla leaves, bamboo shoot, momordica charantia, pumpkins, radish greens, rapeseed leaves, scallions, seaweed, soybean sprouts, spinach, sugar beets, sweet potato vines, and tomatoes.<ref name="KAC">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
SeasoningsEdit
Brining salt (with a larger grain size compared to kitchen salt) is used mainly for initial salting of kimchi vegetables. Being minimally processed, it serves to help develop flavors in fermented foods.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Cabbage is usually salted twice when making spicy kimchi.
Commonly used seasonings include gochugaru (chili powder), scallions, garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (salted seafood)<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="Chin" /> Jeotgal can be replaced with raw seafood in colder Northern parts of the Korean peninsula.<ref name="Doo">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> If used, milder saeu-jeot (salted shrimp) or jogi-jeot (salted croaker) is preferred and the amount of jeotgal is also reduced in Northern and Central regions.<ref name="Doo" /> In Southern Korea, on the other hand, a generous amount of stronger myeolchi-jeot (salted anchovies) and galchi-jeot (salted hairtail) is commonly used.<ref name="Doo" /> Raw seafood or daegu-agami-jeot (salted cod gills) are used in the East coast areas.<ref name="Doo" />
Salt, scallions, garlic, fish sauce, and sugar are commonly added to flavor the kimchi.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ProductionEdit
To make kimchi, start by slicing cabbage or daikon into small, uniform pieces to increase surface area. The pieces are then coated with salt to draw out water, which helps preserve them by preventing the growth of harmful microorganisms. This salting process can use 5–7% salt for 12 hours or 15% salt for 3–7 hours.
After salting, drain the excess water and mix in the seasoning ingredients. Adding sugar can also help by binding any remaining water. Finally, pack the brined vegetables into an airtight jar and let them ferment at room temperature for 24 to 48 hours. The ideal salt concentration during fermentation is about 3%.
Since the fermentation process results in the production of carbon dioxide, the jar should be "burped" daily to release the gas.<ref name=":3">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The more fermentation that occurs, the more carbon dioxide will be incorporated, which results in a very carbonated-drink-like effect.
Microorganisms in kimchiEdit
The microorganisms present in kimchi include Bacillus mycoides, B. pseudomycoides, B. subtilis, Lactobacillus brevis, Lb. curvatus, Lb. kimchii, Lb. parabrevis, Lb. pentosus, Lb. plantarum, Lb. sakei, Lb. spicheri, Lactococcus carnosum, Lc. gelidum, Lc. lactis, Leuconostoc carnosum, Ln. citreum, Ln. gasicomitatum, Ln. gelidum, Ln. holzapfelii, Ln. inhae, Ln. kimchii, Ln. lactis, Ln. mesenteroides, Serratia marcescens, Weissella cibaria, W. confusa, W. kandleri, W. kimchii. W. koreensis, and W. soli.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=pmid15992614>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=pmid16553862>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=pmid18562030>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=pmid23558201>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=pmid23550842>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=pmid23587713>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=pmid23314371>Template:Cite journal</ref> Archaea and yeasts, such as Saccharomyces, Candida, Pichia, and Kluyveromyces are also present in kimchi,<ref name=":9">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> with the latter being responsible for undesirable white colonies that sometimes form in the product as well as food spoilages and off-flavors.<ref name=":9" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In early fermentation stages, the Leuconostoc variety is found more dominantly in kimchi fermentation because of its lower acid tolerance and microaerophilic properties; the Leuconostoc variety also grows better at low salt concentrations.<ref name=":9" /> Throughout the fermentation process, as acidity rises, the Lactobacillus and Weissella variety become dominant because of their higher acid tolerance. Lactobacillus also grows better in conditions with a higher salt concentration.<ref name=":9" />
These microorganisms are present due to the natural microflora provided by utilizing unsterilized food materials in the production of kimchi.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> The step of salting the raw materials as well as the addition of red pepper powder inhibits the pathogenic and putrefactive bacteria present in the microflora, allowing the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to flourish and become the dominant microorganism.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> These anaerobic microorganisms steadily increase in number during the middle stages of fermentation, and prefer to be kept at low temperatures of about 10°C, pH of 4.2-4, and remain in the presence of 1.5% – 4% NaCl.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":0" /> A faster fermentation at a higher temperature may be chosen as well to accelerate the growth of bacterial cultures for a faster decrease in pH level.<ref name=":9" />
Since the raw cruciferous vegetables themselves are the source of LAB required for fermentation, no starter culture is required for the production of kimchi; rather, spontaneous fermentation occurs.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref> The total population of microorganisms present at the beginning of processing determines the outcome of fermentation, causing the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor.<ref name=":0" /> Currently, there are no recommended approaches to control the microbial community during fermentation to predict the outcome.<ref name=":2" /> In the industrial production of kimchi, starter cultures made up of Leu. mesenteroides, Leu. citreum, and Lb. plantarum are used, which are often unsuccessful because they fail to outcompete the naturally occurring cultures on the raw materials.<ref name=":9" />
By-products of microorganismsEdit
The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) produce lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and carbon dioxide as by-products during metabolism. Lactic acid quickly lowers the pH, creating an acidic environment that is uninhabitable for most other microorganisms that survived salting.<ref name=":1" /> This also modifies the flavor of sub-ingredients and can increase the nutritive value of the raw materials, as the microbial community in the fermentation process can synthesize B vitamins and hydrolyze cellulose in plant tissues to free nutrients that are normally indigestible by the human gastrointestinal tract.<ref name=":1" /> Hydrogen peroxide is formed by the oxidation of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and provides an antibiotic to inhibit some undesirable microorganisms.<ref name=":1" /> Carbon dioxide functions as a preservative, flushing out oxygen to create an anaerobic environment, as well as creating the desired carbonation in the final product.<ref name=":1" />
OdorEdit
Kimchi is known for its strong, spicy, flavors and odors, although milder varieties exist. Variations in the fermentation process cause the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor.<ref name=":0" /> The strong odor is especially tied to the sulfur compounds from garlic and ginger of kimchi, which can be less appealing to non-Koreans. Thus, scientists are experimenting with the types of bacteria used in its production to minimize the odor to increase the appeal to international markets.<ref name="Fifield_6/22/2017">Template:Cite news</ref> These efforts are not universally appreciated by lovers of kimchi, as the flavor is affected in the process, and some see that "South Korea's narrative about its own culinary staple" is being manipulated to suit the foreigners' tastes.<ref name="Herreria_Russo_6/29/2017">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
VarietiesEdit
Kimchi is one of the most important staples of Korean cuisine. The Korean term "Kimchi" refers to fermented vegetables, and encompasses salt and seasoned vegetables.<ref name="Jang et al 2016">Template:Cite journal</ref> It is mainly served as a side dish with every meal, but also can be served as a main dish.<ref>Korean Tourism Organization. (2015). Kimchi.</ref> Kimchi is mainly recognized as a spicy fermented cabbage dish globally.<ref name="btpickle-201309" />
New variations of kimchi continue to be created,<ref name="kimchi-types">Template:Cite book</ref> and the taste can vary depending on the region and season.<ref>Kimchi. (2016). Funk & Wagnall's New World Encyclopedia, 1p. 1.</ref> Conventionally, the secret of kimchi preparation was passed down by mothers to their daughters in a bid to make them suitable wives to their husbands.<ref name="Chung et al 2017" /> However, with the current technological advancement and increase in social media use, many individuals worldwide can now access recipes for kimchi preparation.<ref name="Chung et al 2017">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Kimchi can be categorized by main ingredients, regions or seasons. Korea's northern and southern sections have a considerable temperature difference.<ref name="yahookorea">"Kimchi." Yahoo Korean Encyclopedia Template:Webarchive</ref> There are over 180 recognized varieties of kimchi.<ref name="Korea Tourism Organization">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The most common kimchi variations are:
- Baechu-kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) spicy napa cabbage kimchi, made from whole cabbage leaves
- Baechu-geotjeori ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) unfermented napa cabbage kimchi
- Bossam-kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) wrapped kimchi
- Baek-kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) white kimchi, made without chili pepper
- Dongchimi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) a non-spicy watery kimchi
- Nabak-kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) a mildly spicy watery kimchi
- Chonggak-kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) cubed chonggak "ponytail" radish, a popular spicy kimchi
- Kkakdugi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) spicy cubed Korean radish strongly-scented kimchi containing fermented shrimp
- Oi-sobagi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) cucumber kimchi that can be stuffed with seafood and chili paste, and is a popular choice during the spring and summer seasons
- Pa-kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) spicy green onion kimchi
- Yeolmu-kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is also a popular choice during the spring and summer, and is made with yeolmu radishes, and does not necessarily have to be fermented.
- Gat-kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), made with Indian mustard
- Yangbaechu-kimchi (양배추 김치) spicy cabbage kimchi, made from "headed" cabbage leaves (as opposed to napa cabbage)
Kimchi from the northern parts of Korea tend to have less salt and red chili and usually do not include brined seafood for seasoning. Northern kimchi often has a watery consistency. Kimchi made in the southern parts of Korea, such as Jeolla Province and Gyeongsang Province, uses salt, chili peppers and myeolchijeot ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, brined anchovy allowed to ferment) or saeujeot ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, brined shrimp allowed to ferment), myeolchiaekjeot ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), anchovy fish sauce, kkanariaekjeot ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), liquid anchovy jeot, similar to fish sauce used in Southeast Asia, but thicker.
Saeujeot ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) or myeolchijeot is not added to the kimchi spice-seasoning mixture, but is simmered first to reduce odors, eliminate tannic flavor and fats, and then is mixed with a thickener made of rice or wheat starch ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). This technique has been falling into disuse in the past 40 years.
ColorEdit
White kimchi is neither red nor spicy. It includes white napa cabbage kimchi and other varieties such as white radish kimchi (dongchimi). Watery white kimchi varieties are sometimes used as an ingredient in a number of dishes such as cold noodles in dongchimi brine (dongchimi-guksu).
AgeEdit
- Geotjeori ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}): fresh, unfermented kimchi.
- Mugeun-ji ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), also known as mugeun-kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}): aged kimchi
RegionEdit
The following regional classification dates to the 1960s. Since then, kimchi-making practices and trends in Korea have diverged from it.<ref name="yahookorea"/>
- Pyongan Province Non-traditional ingredients have been adopted in rural areas due to severe food shortages.
- Hamgyong Province: Due to its proximity to the ocean, people in this particular region use fresh fish and oysters to season their kimchi.
- Hwanghae Province: The taste of kimchi in Hwanghae Province is not bland but not extremely spicy. Most kimchi from this region have less color since red chili flakes are not used. The typical kimchi in Hwanghae Province is called hobakji (호박지). It is made with pumpkin (bundi).File:Korean.food-kimchi-02.jpgKimchi-buchimgae, a savory Korean pancake with kimchi
- Gyeonggi Province
- Chungcheong Province: Instead of using fermented fish, people in the region rely on salt and fermentation to make savory kimchi. Chungcheong Province has the most varieties of kimchi.
- Gangwon Province, South Korea/Kangwon Province, North Korea: In Gangwon Province, kimchi is stored for longer periods. Unlike other coastal regions in Korea, kimchi in this area does not contain much salted fish.
- Jeolla Province: Salted yellow corvina and salted butterfish are used in this region to create different seasonings for kimchi.
- Gyeongsang Province: This region's cuisine is saltier and spicier. The most common seasoning components include myeolchijeot ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) which produces a briny and savory flavor. They also use oysters in their kimchi.
- Foreign countries: In some places of the world people sometimes make kimchi with western cabbage and many other alternative ingredients such as broccoli.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Seasonal variationsEdit
Different types of kimchi were traditionally made at different times of the year, based on when various vegetables were in season and also to take advantage of hot and cold seasons before the era of refrigeration. Although the advent of modern refrigeration – including kimchi refrigerators specifically designed with precise controls to keep different varieties of kimchi at optimal temperatures at various stages of fermentation – has made this seasonality unnecessary, Koreans continue to consume kimchi according to traditional seasonal preferences.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
SpringEdit
After a long period of consuming gimjang kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) during the winter, fresh potherbs and vegetables were used to make kimchi. These kinds of kimchi were not fermented or even stored for long periods of time but were consumed fresh.
SummerEdit
Yeolmu radishes and cucumbers are summer vegetables made into kimchi, yeolmu-kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) which is eaten in several bites. Brined fish or shellfish can be added, and freshly ground dried chili peppers are often used.
AutumnEdit
Baechu kimchi is prepared by inserting blended stuffing materials, called sok (literally inside), between layers of salted leaves of uncut, whole Napa cabbage. The ingredients of sok ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) can vary, depending on the regions and weather conditions. Generally, baechu kimchi used to have a strong salty flavor until the late 1960s, before which a large amount of myeolchijeot or saeujeot had been used.
Gogumasoon Kimchi is made from sweet potato stems.
WinterEdit
Traditionally, the greatest varieties of kimchi were available during the winter. In preparation for the long winter months, many types of kimjang kimchi ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) were prepared in early winter and stored in the ground in large kimchi pots. Today, many city residents use modern kimchi refrigerators offering precise temperature controls to store kimjang kimchi. November and December are traditionally when people begin to make kimchi; women often gather together in each other's homes to help with winter kimchi preparations.Template:R "Baechu kimchi" is made with salted baechu filled with thin strips of radish, parsley, pine nuts, pears, chestnuts, shredded red pepper, manna lichen (Template:Korean), garlic, and ginger.
Korean preferenceEdit
As of 2004, the preference of kimchi preparation in Korean households from the most prepared type of kimchi to less prepared types of kimchi was: baechu kimchi, being the most prepared type of kimchi, then kkakdugi, then dongchimi and then chonggak kimchi. Baechu kimchi comprised more than seventy percent of marketed kimchi and radish kimchi comprised about twenty percent of marketed kimchi.<ref name="Hui2004">Template:Cite book</ref>
NutritionEdit
Kimchi is made of various vegetables and contains a high concentration of dietary fiber,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> while being low in food energy. The vegetables used in kimchi also contribute to intake of vitamin A, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), calcium, and iron.<ref name="Asianinfo">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="tour2korea">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
| Nutrients | per 100 g | Nutrients | per 100 g |
|---|---|---|---|
| Food energy | 32 | Moisture | 88.4 g |
| Crude protein | 2.0 g | Crude lipid | 0.6 g |
| Total sugar | 1.3 g | Crude fiber | 1.2 g |
| Crude ash | 0.5 g | Calcium | 45 mg |
| Phosphorus | 28 mg | Vitamin A | 492 IU |
| Vitamin B1 | 0.03 mg | Vitamin B2 | 0.06 mg |
| Niacin | 2.1 mg | Vitamin C | 21 mg |
| Fermentation time (week) |
Carotene (μg%Template:What) |
Vitamin B1 (μg%) |
Vitamin B2 (μg%) |
Vitamin B12 (μg%) |
Niacin (μg%) |
Vitamin C (mg%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 49.5a | 41.7 | 66 | 0.17 | 740 | 28.9 | |
| 1 | 44.0 (35.4)b | 41.6 (40.1) | 47 (54) | 0.09 (0.09) | 781 (747) | 25.0 (25.3) | |
| 2 | 32.0 (30.4) | 70.9 (61.9) | 110 (99) | 0.19 (0.20) | 928 (861) | 27.8 (28.5) | |
| 3 | 26.6 (26.9) | 79.1 (87.5) | 230 (157) | 0.25 (0.33) | 901 (792) | 23.6 (22.3) | |
| 4 | 21.0 (25.3) | 62.7 (70.8) | 35 (95) | 0.20 (0.26) | 591 (525) | 16.7 (16.0) | |
| 5 | 24.2 (20.1) | 53.3 (49.1) | 40 (37) | 0.10 (0.16) | 11.16 (11.0) | ||
| aNaturally fermented baechu kimchi bAverage levels of four kimchis; common kimchi +3 different starter inoculated kimchis | |||||||
| Source: Hui et al. (2005)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp who cited Lee et al. (1960) | |||||||
| Components | Baechu-kimchi | Kaktugi | Gat-kimchi | Pa-kimchi | Baek-kimchi | Yeolmu-kimchi | Dongchimi | Nabak-kimchi | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Calorie (kcal) | 18 | 33 | 41 | 52 | 8 | 38 | 11 | 9 | |
| Moisture (%) | 90.8 | 88.4 | 83.2 | 80.7 | 95.7 | 84.5 | 94.2 | 95.1 | |
| Crude protein (g) | 2 | 1.6 | 3.9 | 3.4 | 0.7 | 3.1 | 0.7 | 0.8 | |
| Crude lipid (g) | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 0.1 | |
| Crude ash (g) | 2.8 | 2.3 | 3.5 | 3.3 | 1.5 | 3.2 | 2 | 1.5 | |
| Carbohydrate (g) | 3.9 | 7.4 | 8.5 | 11.8 | 2 | 8.6 | 3 | 2.5 | |
| Dietary fiber (g) | 3 | 2.8 | 4 | 5.1 | 1.4 | 3.3 | 0.8 | 1.5 | |
| Source: Tamang (2015)<ref name="Tamang" /> who cited Lee (2006) | |||||||||
| Vitamins | Baechu-kimchi | Kaktugi | Gat-kimchi | Pa-kimchi | Baek-kimchi | Yeolmu-kimchi | Dongchimi | Nabak-kimchi | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin A (RE) | 48 | 38 | 390 | 352 | 9 | 595 | 15 | 77 | |
| Vitamin A (β-carotene) (μg) |
290 | 226 | 2342 | 2109 | 53 | 3573 | 88 | 460 | |
| Vitamin B1 (mg) | 0.06 | 0.14 | 0.15 | 0.14 | 0.03 | 0.15 | 0.02 | 0.03 | |
| Vitamin B2 (mg) | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.02 | 0.29 | 0.02 | 0.06 | |
| Niacin (mg) | 0.8 | 0.5 | 1.3 | 0.9 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.5 | |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 14 | 19 | 48 | 19 | 10 | 28 | 9 | 10 | |
| Vitamin B6 (mg) | 0.19 | 0.13 | |||||||
| Folic acid (μg) | 43.3 | 58.9 | 74.8 | ||||||
| Vitamin E (mg) | 0.7 | 0.2 | 1.3 | ||||||
| Not detected: vitamin A (retinol), pantothenic acid, vitamin B12, vitamin K | |||||||||
| Source: Tamang (2015)<ref name="Tamang" /> who cited Lee (2006) | |||||||||
A 2003 article said that South Koreans consume 18kg (40lbs) of kimchi per person annually.<ref name=LAT>Template:Cite news</ref> Many credit the Korean Miracle in part to eating the dish.Template:R Adult Koreans eat from Template:Convert to Template:Convert of kimchi a day.<ref name="Tamang">Template:Cite book</ref>
TradeEdit
South Korea spent around $129 million in 2017 to purchase 275,000 metric tons of foreign kimchi, more than 11 times the amount it exported, according to data released by the Korea Customs Service in 2017.<ref name="auto">Template:Cite news</ref> South Korea consumes 1.85 million metric tons of kimchi annually, or 36.1 kg per person.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> It imports a significant fraction of that, mostly from China, and runs a $47.3 million kimchi trade deficit.<ref name="auto"/>
| CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
Year | Volume (tons) | Value (thousand USD) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Export | Import | Export | Import | Surplus | ||
| 2022 | 41,121 | 263,435 | 140,823 | 169,400 | -28,577 | |
| 2021 | 42,540 | 240,606 | 159,915 | 140,742 | 19,173 | |
| 2020 | 39,748 | 281,187 | 144,511 | 152,426 | −7,915 | |
| 2019 | 29,628 | 306,050 | 104,992 | 130,911 | −25,919 | |
| 2018 | 28,197 | 290,742 | 97,456 | 138,215 | −40,759 | |
| 2017 | 24,311 | 275,631 | 81,393 | 128,679 | −47,286 | |
| 2016 | 23,490 | 253,432 | 78,900 | 121,485 | −42,585 | |
| 2015 | 23,111 | 224,124 | 73,543 | 113,237 | −39,694 | |
| 2014 | 24,742 | 212,938 | 84,033 | 104,396 | −20,363 | |
| 2013 | 25,631 | 220,218 | 89277 | 117,431 | −28,154 | |
| 2012 | 27,664 | 218,845 | 106,608 | 110,842 | −4,234 | |
| 2011 | 27,429 | 230,078 | 104,577 | 120,874 | −16,297 | |
| 2010 | 29,672 | 192,936 | 98,360 | 102,019 | −3,659 | |
ConsumptionEdit
In 2021, Koreans collectively consumed 1,965,000 tons of Kimchi, with average Korean consuming 88.3 grams of Kimchi daily. This average has been steadily declining from 109.9 grams per day in 2010, marking a 19.6% decrease. Males tend to consume more Kimchi than females, with an average of 106.6 grams compared to 70.0 grams.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
| Year | Total | Male | Female |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2010 | 109.9 | 129.0 | 90.8 |
| 2015 | 96.3 | 115.1 | 77.6 |
| 2020 | 88.3 | 106.6 | 70.0 |
| CAGR | −2.16% | −1.89% | −2.57% |
Food regulationsEdit
The Canadian Food Inspection Agency has regulations for the commercial production of kimchi. The final product should have a pH ranging from 4.2 to 4.5.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite book</ref> Any low-acidity ingredients with a pH above 4.6, including white daikon and napa cabbage, should not be left under conditions that enable the growth of undesirable microorganisms and require a written illustration of the procedure designed to ensure this is available if requested.<ref name=":4" /> This procedural design should include steps that maintain sterility of the equipment and products used, and the details of all sterilization processes.<ref name=":4" /> The cutoff pH of 4.6 is a value common to many food safety regulations, initially defined because botulism toxin is not produced below this level.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
GalleryEdit
- Korean cuisine-Gimjang-Preparation for making kimchi-01.jpg
Preparation for making kimchi
- Korean cuisine-Seongnyu kimchi-Pomegranate kimchi-01.jpg
Seokryu kimchi named after its pomegranate-like shape
- Koren cuisine-Jang kimchi-Pickled with soy sauce-01.jpg
Jang kimchi, pickled with soy sauce
- Korean food-Packed kimchi-01.jpg
Displayed manufactured kimchi
- Oi-sobagi.jpg
Oi-sobagi (cucumber kimchi)
- Bok choy green kimchi.jpg
Homemade green kimchi, made with bok choy with a green onion and garlic scape-based chili paste
See alsoEdit
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- Template:Annotated link – a variety of kimchi made of carrots by Koryo-saram
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ReferencesEdit
Further readingEdit
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