Kurdish language

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Kurdish ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) is a Northwestern Iranian language or group of languages spoken by Kurds in the region of Kurdistan,<ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> namely in southeast Turkey, northern Iraq, northwest Iran, and northern Syria. It is also spoken in northeast Iran, as well as in certain areas of Armenia and Azerbaijan.

Kurdish varieties constitute a dialect continuum,<ref name="Iranica" /> with some mutually unintelligible varieties,<ref name=":2" /> and collectively have 26 million native speakers.<ref>Template:Ethnologue27</ref> The main varieties of Kurdish are Kurmanji, Sorani, and Southern Kurdish ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). The majority of the Kurds speak Kurmanji,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and most Kurdish texts are written in Kurmanji and Sorani. Kurmanji is written in the Hawar alphabet, a derivation of the Latin script, and Sorani is written in the Sorani alphabet, a derivation of the Arabic script.

A separate group of non-Kurdish Northwestern Iranian languages, the Zaza–Gorani languages, are also spoken by several million ethnic Kurds.<ref name="ReferenceB">Kaya, Mehmet. The Zaza Kurds of Turkey: A Middle Eastern Minority in a Globalised Society. Template:ISBN</ref><ref name="gulf2000.columbia.edu">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Books.google.com">Template:Cite book</ref>

The classification of Laki as a dialect of Southern Kurdish or as a fourth language under Kurdish is a matter of debate,<ref name="Iranatlas">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> but the differences between Laki and other Southern Kurdish dialects are minimal.<ref name="iranicaonline">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The literary output in Kurdish was mostly confined to poetry until the early 20th century, when more general literature became developed. Today, the two principal written Kurdish dialects are Kurmanji and Sorani. Sorani is, along with Arabic, one of the two official languages of Iraq and is in political documents simply referred to as "Kurdish".<ref>Allison, Christine. The Yezidi oral tradition in Iraqi Kurdistan. 2001. "However, it was the southern dialect of Kurdish, Sorani, the majority language of the Iraqi Kurds, which received sanction as an official language of Iraq."</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Classification and originEdit

The Kurdish varieties belong to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. They are generally classified as Northwestern Iranian languages, or by some scholars as intermediate between Northwestern and Southwestern Iranian.<ref name="Windfuhr2009">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Martin van Bruinessen notes that "Kurdish has a strong South-Western Iranian element", whereas "Zaza and Gurani [...] do belong to the north-west Iranian group".<ref>Bruinessen, M.M. van. (1994). Kurdish nationalism and competing ethnic loyalties Template:Webarchive</ref>

Ludwig Paul concludes that Kurdish seems to be a Northwestern Iranian language in origin,<ref name="Iranica">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> but acknowledges that it shares many traits with Southwestern Iranian languages like Persian, apparently due to longstanding and intense historical contacts.

Windfuhr identified Kurdish dialects as Parthian, albeit with a Median substratum. Windfuhr and Frye assume an eastern origin for Kurdish and consider it as related to eastern and central Iranian dialects.<ref>Windfuhr, Gernot (1975), "Isoglosses: A Sketch on Persians and Parthians, Kurds and Medes", Monumentum H.S. Nyberg II (Acta Iranica-5), Leiden: 457-471</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The present state of knowledge about Kurdish allows, at least roughly, drawing the approximate borders of the areas where the main ethnic core of the speakers of the contemporary Kurdish dialects was formed. The most argued hypothesis on the localisation of the ethnic territory of the Kurds remains D.N. Mackenzie's theory, proposed in the early 1960s (Mackenzie 1961). Developing the ideas of P. Tedesco (1921: 255) and regarding the common phonetic isoglosses shared by Kurdish, Persian, and Baluchi, Mackenzie concluded that the speakers of these three languages may once have been in closer contact.

VarietiesEdit

Kurdish varieties are divided into three or four groups, with varying degrees of mutual intelligibility.<ref>Hassanpour, A. (1992). Nationalism and language in Kurdistan. San Francisco: Mellon Press. Also mentioned in: kurdishacademy.org Template:Webarchive</ref><ref name=":0">Postgate, J.N., Languages of Iraq, ancient and modern, [Iraq]: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, 2007, Template:ISBN, p.139</ref>

Kurmanji is the largest dialect group, spoken by an estimated 15 to 20 million Kurds in Turkey, Syria, northern Iraq, and northwest and northeast Iran.
Sorani is spoken by an estimated 6 to 7 million Kurds in much of Iraqi Kurdistan and the Iranian Kurdistan province.<ref name="kreyenbroek">Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language", a chapter in the book The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview. The book is previewable at Google Book Search Template:Webarchive.</ref>
Southern Kurdish (Pehlewani) is spoken in the Kermanshah, Ilam and Lorestan provinces of Iran and in the Khanaqin District of eastern Iraq.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Laki and Kordali (Palai) are often included in Southern Kurdish,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> but they have some distinct features.<ref>Erik Anonby, Mortaza Taheri-Ardali & Amos Hayes (2019) The Atlas of the Languages of Iran (ALI). Iranian Studies 52. A Working Classification Template:Webarchive</ref>

In historical evolution terms, Kurmanji is less modified than Sorani and Pehlewani in both phonetic and morphological structure. The Sorani group has been influenced by among other things its closer cultural proximity to the other languages spoken by Kurds in the region including the Gorani language in parts of Iranian Kurdistan and Iraqi Kurdistan.<ref name="kreyenbroek" /><ref name="autogenerated1">D.N. MacKenzie, Language in Kurds & Kurdistan, Encyclopaedia of Islam.</ref>

Philip G. Kreyenbroek, an expert writing in 1992, says:

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According to Encyclopaedia of Islam, although Kurdish is not a unified language, its many dialects are interrelated and at the same time distinguishable from other Western Iranian languages. The same source classifies different Kurdish dialects as two main groups, northern and central.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> The average Kurmanji speaker does not find it easy to communicate with the inhabitants of Sulaymaniyah or Halabja.<ref name=":0"/>

The Mokriani variety of Sorani is widely spoken in Mokrian. Piranshahr and Mahabad are two principal cities of the Mokrian area.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Zazaki and GoraniEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Zaza–Gorani languages, which are spoken by communities in the wider area who identify as ethnic Kurds, are not linguistically classified as Kurdish.<ref name="ReferenceB" /><ref name="gulf2000.columbia.edu" /><ref name="Books.google.com" /> Zaza-Gorani is classified as adjunct to Kurdish, although authorities differ in the details.<ref name="Windfuhr2009" />Template:Rp groups Kurdish with Zaza Gorani within a "Northwestern I" group, while Glottolog based on Encyclopædia Iranica prefers an areal grouping of "Central dialects" (or "Kermanic") within Northwest Iranic, with Kurdish but not Zaza-Gorani grouped with "Kermanic".<ref>Glottolog 2.3, Subfamily: Central Iran Kermanic Template:Webarchive. "The Central dialects thus constitute the southernmost group of the so-called Northwest Iranian dialects," Central Dialects Template:Webarchive (iranicaonline.org)</ref>

Gorani is distinct from Northern and Central Kurdish, yet shares vocabulary with both of them and there are some grammatical similarities with Central Kurdish.<ref>Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language", a chapter in the book The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview.</ref> The Hawrami dialects of Gorani includes a variety that was an important literary language since the 14th century, but it was replaced by Central Kurdish in the 20th century.<ref>Meri, Josef W. Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index. p444</ref>

European scholars have maintained that Gorani is separate from Kurdish and that Kurdish is synonymous with the Northern Kurdish group, whereas ethnic Kurds maintain that Kurdish encompasses any of the unique languages or dialects spoken by Kurds that are not spoken by neighbouring ethnic groups.<ref>Edmonds, Cecil. Kurds, Turks, and Arabs: politics, travel, and research in north-eastern Iraq, 1919–1925. Oxford University Press, 1957.</ref>

Gorani is classified as part of the Zaza–Gorani branch of Indo-Iranian languages.<ref>J. N. Postgate, Languages of Iraq, ancient and modern, British School of Archaeology in Iraq, [Iraq]: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, 2007, p. 138.</ref> The Zaza language, spoken mainly in Turkey, differs both grammatically and in vocabulary and is generally not understandable by Gorani speakers but it is considered related to Gorani. Almost all Zaza-speaking communities,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> as well as speakers of the closely related Shabaki dialect spoken in parts of Iraqi Kurdistan, identify themselves as ethnic Kurds.<ref name="ReferenceB" /><ref>Abd al-Jabbar, Falih. Ayatollahs, sufis and ideologues: state, religion and social movements in Iraq. University of Virginia 2008.</ref><ref>Sykes, Mark. The Caliphs' last heritage: a short history of the Turkish Empire</ref><ref>O'Shea, Maria. Trapped between the map and reality: geography and perceptions of Kurdistan. Template:ISBN.</ref><ref>Library Information and Research Service. The Middle East, abstracts and index</ref><ref>Meiselas, Susan. Kurdistan: in the shadow of history. Random House, 1997.</ref>

Geoffrey Haig and Ergin Öpengin in their recent study suggest grouping the Kurdish languages into Northern Kurdish, Central Kurdish, Southern Kurdish, Zaza, and Gorani, and avoid the subgrouping Zaza–Gorani.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Professor Zare Yusupova has carried out much work and research into the Gorani dialect (as well as many other minority/ancient Kurdish dialects).<ref name="research-gate-book-1">Template:Cite book</ref>

HistoryEdit

During his stay in Damascus, historian Ibn Wahshiyya came across two books on agriculture written in Kurdish, one on the culture of the vine and the palm tree, and the other on water and the means of finding it out in unknown ground. He translated both from Kurdish into Arabic in the early 9th century AD.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Among the earliest Kurdish religious texts is the Yazidi Black Book, the sacred book of Yazidi faith. It is considered to have been authored sometime in the 13th century AD by Hassan bin Adi (b. 1195 AD), the great-grandnephew of Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir (d. 1162), the founder of the faith. It contains the Yazidi account of the creation of the world, the origin of man, the story of Adam and Eve and the major prohibitions of the faith.<ref>John S. Guest, The Yezidis: A Study in Survival, Routledge Publishers, 1987, Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN, 299 pp. (see pages 18, 19, 32)</ref> According to The Cambridge History of the Kurds, "the first proper 'textTemplate:'" written in Kurdish is a short Christian prayer. It was written in Armenian characters, and dates from the fifteenth century.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> From the 15th to 17th centuries, classical Kurdish poets and writers developed a literary language. The most notable classical Kurdish poets from this period were Ali Hariri, Ahmad Khani, Malaye Jaziri and Faqi Tayran.

The Italian priest Maurizio Garzoni published the first Kurdish grammar titled Grammatica e Vocabolario della Lingua Kurda in Rome in 1787 after eighteen years of missionary work among the Kurds of Amadiya.<ref>Ernest R. McCarus, Kurdish Language Studies, The Middle East Journal, Published by Middle East Institute, Washington, 1960, p.325</ref> This work is very important in Kurdish history as it is the first acknowledgment of the widespread use of a distinctive Kurdish language. Garzoni was given the title Father of Kurdology by later scholars.<ref>Kurdistan and Its Christians Template:Webarchive, Mirella Galetti, World Congress of Kurdish Studies, 6–9 September 2006</ref> The Kurdish language was banned in a large portion of Kurdistan for some time. After the 1980 Turkish coup d'état until 1991 the use of the Kurdish language was illegal in Turkey.<ref>Ross, Michael. The Volunteer (chapter: The Road to Ankara)</ref>

Current statusEdit

File:Road sign double toponyms Amed DSC00179.JPG

Road signs near Diyarbakır showing the place names in Turkish and Kurdish

Today, Sorani is an official language in Iraq. In Syria, on the other hand, publishing materials in Kurdish is forbidden,<ref>Repression of Kurds in Syria is widespread Template:Webarchive, Amnesty International Report, March 2005.</ref> though this prohibition is not enforced any more due to the Syrian civil war.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Before August 2002, the Turkish government placed severe restrictions on the use of Kurdish, prohibiting the language in education and broadcast media.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In March 2006, Turkey allowed private television channels to begin airing programming in Kurdish. However, the Turkish government said that they must avoid showing children's cartoons, or educational programs that teach Kurdish, and could broadcast only for 45 minutes a day or four hours a week.<ref>Turkey to get Kurdish television Template:Webarchive</ref> The state-run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) started its 24-hour Kurdish television station on 1 January 2009 with the motto "we live under the same sky".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Turkish prime minister sent a video message in Kurdish to the opening ceremony, which was attended by Minister of Culture and other state officials. The channel uses the X, W, and Q letters during broadcasting. However, most of these restrictions on private Kurdish television channels were relaxed in September 2009.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 2010, Kurdish municipalities in the southeast began printing marriage certificates, water bills, construction and road signs, as well as emergency, social and cultural notices in Kurdish alongside Turkish. Also Imams began to deliver Friday sermons in Kurdish and Esnaf price tags in Kurdish. Many mayors were tried for issuing public documents in Kurdish language.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Kurdish alphabet is not recognized in Turkey, and prior to 2013 the use of Kurdish names containing the letters X, W, and Q, which do not exist in the Turkish alphabet, was not allowed.<ref name="cla3a">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 2012, Kurdish-language lessons became an elective subject in public schools. Previously, Kurdish education had only been possible in private institutions.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

In Iran, though it is used in some local media and newspapers, it is not used in public schools.<ref>The Kurdish Language and Literature Template:Webarchive, by Joyce Blau, professor of Kurdish language and civilization at the National Institute of Oriental Language and Civilization of the University of Paris (INALCO)</ref><ref>The language policy of Iran from State policy on the Kurdish language: the politics of status planning Template:Webarchive by Amir Hassanpour, University of Toronto</ref> In 2005, 80 Syrian and Iranian Kurds took part in an experiment and gained scholarships to study in Kurdistan Region, Iraq, in their native tongue.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In Kyrgyzstan, Template:Pct of the Kurdish population speak Kurdish as their native language.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In Kazakhstan, the corresponding percentage is 88.7%.<ref name="kazakhstan">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>