Template:Redirect-multi Template:Speciesbox Template:Mahāyāna Buddhism
,_late_19th_century,_NGA_52325.jpg){kind=link}
Nelumbo nucifera, also known as the pink lotus,Template:Citation needed sacred lotus, Indian lotus,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> or simply lotus, is one of two extant species of aquatic plant in the family Nelumbonaceae. It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more often refers to members of the family Nymphaeaceae.<ref>Janice Glimn-Lacy, Peter B. Kaufman, Botany Illustrated: Introduction to Plants, Major Groups, Flowering Plant Families, p. 79, 2006, Springer, google books</ref> The lotus belongs in the order Proteales.
Lotus plants are adapted to grow in the flood plains of slow-moving rivers and delta areas. Stands of lotus drop hundreds of thousands of seeds every year to the bottom of the pond. While some sprout immediately and most are eaten by wildlife, the remaining seeds can remain dormant for an extensive period of time as the pond silts in and dries out. During flood conditions, sediments containing these seeds are broken open, and the dormant seeds rehydrate and begin a new lotus colony. It is cultivated in nutrient-rich, loamy, and often flooded soils, requiring warm temperatures and specific planting depths, with propagation via rhizomes, seeds, or tissue culture, and is harvested by hand or machine for stolons, flowers, seeds, and rhizomes over several months depending on climate and variety.
It has large leaves and flowers that can regulate their temperature, produces long-living seeds, and contains bioactive alkaloids. Under favorable circumstances, the seeds of this aquatic perennial may remain viable for many years, with the oldest recorded lotus germination being from seeds 1,300 years old recovered from a dry lakebed in northeastern China.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Therefore, the Chinese regard the plant as a symbol of longevity.
It has a very wide native distribution, ranging from central and northern India (at altitudes up to Template:Convert in the southern Himalayas<ref name="Heinrich-2010">Template:Cite journal</ref>), through northern Indochina and East Asia (north to the Amur region; the Russian populations have sometimes been referred to as Nelumbo komarovii, with isolated locations at the Caspian Sea.<ref name="Zhang-2015" /> Today, the species also occurs in southern India, Sri Lanka, virtually all of Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and northern and eastern Australia, but this is probably the result of human translocations.<ref name="Zhang-2015" /> It has a very long history (Template:Circa 3,000 years) of being cultivated for its edible seeds<ref name="Zhang-2015" /> and is commonly cultivated in water gardens.<ref name="Heinrich-2010"/> It is the national flower of India and unofficially Vietnam. It is a highly symbolic and versatile plant used in religious offerings (especially in Hinduism and Buddhism) and diverse culinary traditions across Asia, with its flowers, seeds, and rhizomes valued for spiritual, cultural, and nutritional purposes. It holds deep cultural, spiritual, and religious significance across Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Ismailism, and Chinese culture, symbolizing purity, enlightenment, spiritual awakening, and divine beauty, and is widely depicted in art, architecture, and literature.
The leaves of Nelumbo nucifera contain the flavonol miquelianin and alkaloids such as coclaurine and norcoclaurine, while the plant as a whole contains bioactive compounds including nuciferine and neferine. These constituents have been studied for their potential pharmacological effects, and the plant is used in traditional medicine and marketed as a functional food in various cultures.
ClassificationEdit
Template:See also The lotus is often confused with the true water lilies of the genus Nymphaea, in particular N. caerulea, the "blue lotus." In fact, several older systems, such as the Bentham & Hooker system (which is widely used in the Indian subcontinent), refer to the lotus by its old synonym, Nymphaea nelumbo.Template:Citation needed
While all modern plant taxonomy systems agree that this species belongs in the genus Nelumbo, the systems disagree as to which family Nelumbo should be placed in or whether the genus should belong in its own unique family and order. According to the APG IV system, N. nucifera, N. lutea, and their extinct relatives belong in Proteales with the protea flowers<ref name="APGIV-2016">Template:Cite journal</ref> due to genetic comparisons. Older systems, such as the Cronquist system, place N. nucifera and its relatives in the order Nymphaeles based on anatomical similarities.<ref name="Bioinformatics Working Group">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to the APG IV classification, the closest relatives of Nelumbo include the sycamores (Platanaceae).
BotanyEdit
The lotus roots are planted in pond or river bottom soil, while the leaves float on the water's surface or are held well above it. The leaf stalks (petioles) can be up to Template:Convert long, allowing the plant to grow in water to that depth.<ref name="RBGKew">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The peltate leaf blade or lamina can have a horizontal spread of Template:Convert.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Cook, Water Plants of the World (see below) loc. cit.</ref> The leaves may be as large as Template:Convert in diameter.<ref name="RHS-1999"/>
FlowerEdit
The flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. They are showy and grow up to Template:Convert in diameter.<ref name="RHS-1999">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=":20">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Some cultivated varieties have extraordinary numbers of petals. For example, the Chinese variety qian ban lian ("thousand petals lotus") can have between 3,000 and 4,000 petals in a single blossom<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Dead link</ref> and the Japanese variety ohmi myoren ("strange lotus") can have between 2,000 and 5,000 petals,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the greatest number recorded for any species of plant.
Researchers report that the lotus has the remarkable ability to regulate the temperature of its flowers within a narrow range, just as humans and other warm-blooded animals do.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Roger S. Seymour and Paul Schultze-Motel, physiologists at the University of Adelaide in Australia, found that lotus flowers blooming in the Adelaide Botanic Gardens maintained a temperature of Template:Convert, even when the air temperature dropped to Template:Convert. They suspect the flowers may be doing this to attract cold-blooded insect pollinators. Studies published in the journals Nature and Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences in 1996 and 1998 were important contributions in the field of thermoregulation in plants. Two other species known to be able to regulate their temperature include Symplocarpus foetidus<ref name="Thorington-1999">Template:Cite journal</ref> and Thaumatophyllum bipinnatifidum.Template:Citation needed The red tiger lotus is native to West Africa, including Nigeria and Cameroon, and thrives in slow-moving water.
SeedEdit
A fertilized lotus flower bears fruit that contains a cluster of 10 to 30 seeds. Each seed is ovoid 1–2.5 cm wide by 1–1.5 cm long with a brownish coat.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Lotus seeds can remain viable after long periods of dormancy. In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus, dated at roughly 1,300 years old ± 270 years, was successfully germinated.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The traditional sacred lotus is only distantly related to Nymphaea caerulea, but possesses similar chemistry. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids nuciferine and aporphine.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The genome of the sacred lotus was sequenced in May 2013.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> A dedicated genome database lists additional genome assemblies sequenced since then.
CultivationEdit
The sacred lotus grows in water up to Template:Convert deep. The minimum water depth is about Template:Convert. In colder climates, having a deeper water level protects the tubers more effectively, and overall is helpful for better growth and flowering. The sacred lotus germinates at temperatures above Template:Convert.<ref name="Sou-1995">Template:Cite journal</ref> Most varieties are not naturally cold-hardy, but may readily adapt to living outdoors year-round in USDA hardiness zones 6 through 11 (with some growers having success in zones as low as 4 or 5); the higher the zone's number, the greater the adaptability of the plants.<ref name="Huxley-1992">Template:Cite book</ref> In the growing season, from April to September (in the northern hemisphere), the average daytime temperature needed is Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In regions with low light levels in winter, the sacred lotus has a period of dormancy. The tubers are not cold-resistant, if removed from water, and exposed to the air; when kept underwater in soil, the energy-rich tubers can overwinter temperatures below Template:Convert.<ref name="Tian-2008">Template:Cite book</ref> If the plants are taken out of the water for wintertime storage (mostly in exceptionally cold climates), the tubers and roots must be stored in a stable, frost-free location, such as a garage, preferably in a cardboard box or container filled completely with vermiculite or perlite. Care must be taken to fully insulate the tubers.<ref name="Masuda-2006">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
PlantingEdit
The sacred lotus requires a nutrient-rich and loamy soil.<ref name="Huxley-1992" /> In the beginning of the summer period (from March until May in the northern hemisphere),<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> a small part of rhizome with at least one eye is either planted in ponds<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> or directly into a flooded field.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="La-ongsri-2009">Template:Cite journal</ref> There are several other propagation ways via seeds or buds.<ref name="Tian-2008" /> Furthermore, tissue culture is a promising propagation method for the future to produce high volumes of uniform, true-to-type, disease-free materials.<ref name="Nguyen-2001">Template:Cite book</ref>
The first step of the cultivation is to plough the dry field. One round of manure is applied after ten days, before flooding the field. To support a quick initial growth, the water level is relatively low<ref name="La-ongsri-2009" /> and increases when plants grow. Then a maximum of approximately Template:Convert with grid spacing of Template:Convert<ref name="Nguyen-2001" /> are used to plant directly into the mud Template:Convert below the soil surface.<ref name="Kay-1987">Template:Cite book</ref>
HarvestEdit
The stolon is ready to harvest two to three months after planting. It must be harvested before flowering. Harvesting the stolon is done by manual labor. For this step, the field is not drained. The stolon is pulled out of the water by pulling and shaking the young leaves in the shallow water.<ref name="La-ongsri-2009" />
The first leaves and flowers can be harvested three months after planting. Flowers can be picked every two days during summer and every three days during the colder season. Four months after planting, the production of flowers has its climax. The harvest of flowers is usually done by hand for three to four months.<ref name="La-ongsri-2009" />
Seeds and seed pods can be harvested when they turn black four to eight months after planting. After sun drying for two to three days, they are processed by mechanical tools to separate seed coats and embryos.<ref name="La-ongsri-2009" /><ref name="Tian-2008" />
The rhizomes mature to a suitable stage for eating in approximately six to nine months.<ref name="Kay-1987" /> Early varieties are harvested in July until September and late varieties from October until March, after the ponds or fields are drained.<ref name="Tian-2008" /><ref name="Masuda-2006" /><ref name="La-ongsri-2009" /><ref name="Kay-1987" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The large, starch-rich rhizomes are easy to dig out of the drained soil.<ref name="La-ongsri-2009" /> In small-scale production, they are harvested by hand using fork-like tools.<ref name="Tian-2008" /> In Japan and on bigger farms, manual labour harvesting is fully replaced by machines.<ref name="Sou-1995" />
Varieties and cultivarsEdit
Lotus varieties have been classified according to their use into three types: rhizome lotus, seed lotus, and flower lotus. Varieties that show more than one of these characteristics are classified by the strongest feature.<ref name="Nguyen-2001" /> Regarding production area in China, rhizome lotus has the largest area with Template:Convert, followed by seed lotus with Template:Convert.<ref name="Guo-2009">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Rhizome lotusEdit
Rhizome lotus cultivars produce a higher yield and higher quality rhizomes than seed or flower lotus cultivars. Furthermore, this group grows tall and produces few to no flowers.<ref name="Guo-2009" /><ref name="Nguyen-2001" />
Cultivars can be classified by harvest time or by the depth of rhizomes into these types:
- Pre-mature (early) cultivars are harvested before the end of July, serotinous (late) cultivars from September on, and mid-serotinous or mid-matutinal cultivars are in between these harvest times. Using pre-mature cultivars, rhizomes can be harvested earlier and sold for a higher price.<ref name="Guo-2009" />
- Adlittoral, deep, and intermediate cultivars are distinguished according to the depth in which the rhizomes grow underground. Adlittoral cultivars range from Template:Convert depth and are often premature. They develop faster due to higher temperatures in surface soil layers. When harvested in July, adlittorals have higher yields than deeper-growing cultivars, but not necessarily when harvested in September. Rhizomes of adlittoral cultivars are crisp and good for frying purposes. Deep cultivars grow more than Template:Convert deep. They are often serotinous and can harvest high yields. Their rhizomes are starch-rich.<ref name="Guo-2009" />
The main popular Nelumbo nucifera cultivars in China are Elian 1, Elian 4, Elian 5, 9217, Xin 1, and 00–01. The average yield of these cultivars is 7.5–15 t/ha (3.3–6.7 tons/acre) of harvest in July and 30–45 t/ha (13–20 tons/acre) of harvest in September.<ref name="Guo-2009" /> In Australia, the cultivar grown for the fresh rhizome market in Guangdong and Japan, the common rhizome cultivars are Tenno and Bitchu.<ref name="Nguyen-2001" />
Seed lotusEdit
The characteristics of seed lotus cultivars are a large number of carpels and seed sets as well as large seeds with better nutritional properties. Roots of these varieties are thin, fibrous, and do not form good rhizomes.<ref name="Nguyen-2001" /> The main popular cultivars for seed production in China are Cunsanlian, Xianglian 1, Zilian 2, Jianlian, Ganlian 62, and Taikong 36. The average yield of these cultivars in China is 1.05–1.9 t/ha (0.5–0.8 tons/acre) of dry seeds and weight of thousand seeds between Template:Convert.<ref name="Guo-2009" /> Green Jade and Vietnam-Red are recommended cultivars for seed production in Australia.<ref name="Nguyen-2001" />
Flower lotusEdit
Flower lotus cultivars are used exclusively for ornamental purpose, producing many flowers and the lowest plant height.<ref name="Guo-2009" />
The seed production of flower lotus is typically poor regarding yield and quality. Flower types differ in the number of petals (single petals, double petals, or multi-petals) and their colours range from single colour in white, yellow, pink, and red to bi-colour, most often of white petals with pink tips or highlights.<ref name="Nguyen-2001" />
The flowers are capable of producing ink used by artists such as Morrison Polkinghorne to produce abstract images of the landscapes of southern Asia.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
One example of a flower lotus is Wanlian. Also known as bowl lotus, wanlians are any miniature cultivars of N. nucifera sized between Template:Convert. Bowl lotuses come in various colours and numbers of petals, and they bloom longer than other species of lotus. But together with the rhizome, their seeds are often too small or too hard to be edible.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The sacred lotus may be crossed with the yellow lotus to produce interspecific hybrids. A few varieties have been produced with differing appearances.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
FarmingEdit
About 70% of lotus for human consumption is produced in China. In 2005, the cultivation area in China was estimated at Template:Convert.<ref name="Tian-2008" /> A majority of lotus production takes place in managed farming systems in ponds or flooded fields like rice.<ref name="Guo-2009" />
The most widely used system is crop rotation with rice and vegetables. This system is applicable if the propagule (small piece of rhizome) can be planted early in the year. The rhizomes are harvested in July, after which rice can be planted in the same field. Rice is then harvested in October. From November until March, the field stays either free or terricolous vegetables, such as cabbage or spinach, are planted. Alternatively, the vegetable can also be planted after the harvest of the lotus.<ref name="Guo-2009" />
Another alternative way is not to harvest the lotus rhizome, even though it is already ripe. A terricolous vegetable is planted between the rhizomes into the drained field. The rhizomes are then harvested next March.<ref name="Guo-2009" />
A third way is to plant lotus in ponds or fields and raise aquatic animals such as fish, shrimp, or crab in the same field.<ref name="Guo-2009" /> A more efficient use of the water for both, the aquatic animals and lotus production has been identified with this planting pattern.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
UseEdit
ReligiousEdit
Lotus flowers are widely used as offerings to most female deities, especially Lakshmi, in Hindu temples. Among male deities, lotuses are offered to Vishnu for prosperity and to Shiva for salvation. Garlands made of lotuses are used for adorning deities and lotus petals are used in puja. Lotus seeds are also used in prayer beads. Lotuses are also offered to the Buddha in most Buddhist temples. Lotus is also widely used in Varamala (hindu wedding garland).
- Seruvila lotus pooja 3.jpg
Lotus offering
- Hindu Goddess Lakshmi in home temple.jpg
Lakshmi adorned with lotus petals
- Light falling on a Pooja.jpg
Lotus is widely used in Hindu Pooja
- A ritual, Hindus preparing for lotus pooja.jpg
Buddhists preparing for lotus puja in Sri Lanka
- Lotus seeds on a mala jan 10.jpg
Lotus seed on a mala
PoliticalEdit
{{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= {{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= Template:Ambox }} }}
The lotus is the national flower of the Republic of India. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) uses lotus as its party symbol. The BJP, in the past, have used lotuses in multiple colors - pink, white, blue, red and saffron, in their party flag. In recent times, as a part of branding strategy and to make it easier for voters, BJP started using lotus logo in black-and-white in most settings as Electronic Voting Machines (EVM) in India only allow black-and-white logos.
- BJP flag.svg
Flag of the BJP
- BJP Flag.svg
- Lotus flower symbol.svg
Election symbol and logo of the BJP
Albeit unofficially, the lotus is also widely recognized as a national flower and a significant component representing the Vietnamese culture and national identity. The lotus and its stylized symbolism have been used by almost every modern Vietnamese governments and regimes including both the communist and non-communist ones. There are advocates for the contemporary Government of Vietnam to formally designate lotus as the national flower, citing straw polls indicating very high approval from the Vietnamese citizens.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web
}}</ref>
- Biểu trưng Mặt trận Tổ quốc Việt Nam.svg
Emblem of the Vietnam Fatherland Front
- Emblem of Vietnam Buddhist Sangha.svg
Emblem of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha
- Biểu trưng thành phố Hà Tĩnh, tỉnh Hà Tĩnh, Việt Nam.svg
Emblem of Hà Tĩnh city
- VIetnamese biometric national identity card.jpg
Stylized lotuses decorating the Vietnamese identity card.
- To Lam June 2024.jpg
General Secretary Tô Lâm with lotus decorations behind him.
- Communist Party of Vietnam 2016 propaganda poster celebrating voting (1).jpg
Stylized lotus symbolism as a component of Vietnamese communist propaganda.
CulinaryEdit
Template:More citations needed section
RhizomesEdit
The rhizomes of lotus (Template:Lang-zh, Template:Langx, Template:Langx, Template:Langx, Sindhi Beeh, Template:Langx)<ref>[1], Andhra Bharati Dictionary; Lotus-root - అల్లిదుంప; అల్లికాయ.</ref> are consumed as a vegetable in Asian countries, extensively in China, Japan, India, Pakistan (Sindh), sold whole or in cut pieces, fresh, frozen, or canned. They are fried or cooked mostly in soups, soaked in syrup or pickled in vinegar (with sugar, chili and garlic).<ref name="Yu-2002">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Tian-2007">Tian, N., et al. "Isolation and preparation of flavonoids from the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn by preparative reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography." Se pu= Chinese journal of chromatography 25.1 (2007): 88–92.</ref> Lotus rhizomes have a crunchy texture and are a classic dish at many banquets, where they are deep-fried, stir-fried, or stuffed with meats or preserved fruits.<ref name="Yu-2002" /> Salads with prawns, sesame oil or coriander leaves are also popular. Fresh lotus root slices are limited by a fast browning rate.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>M.A. Rojas-Graüa, M.S. Tapiab, O. Martín-Bellosoa. Using polysaccharide-based edible coatings to maintain the quality of fresh-cut Fuji apples. LWT Food Science and Technology, 41 (2008), pp. 139–147</ref> Lotus root tea is consumed in Korea.
Lotus root is a popular vegetable in Sri Lanka, where it is often cooked in coconut milk gravy. In India, lotus root (also known as kamala kakaṛī in Hindi) is cooked as a dry curry or Sabzî.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Japan is one of the primary users of the rhizomes, representing about 1% of all vegetables consumed. Japan grows its own lotus but still must import 18,000 tons of lotus rhizome each year, of which China provides 15,000 tons yearly.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Rhizomes contain high amounts of starch (31.2%) without characteristic taste or odor. The texture is comparable to a raw potato.<ref>Mukherjee PK. et al. Isolation, estimation and characterization of starch from rhizomes of Nelumbo nuciferaGaertn (Fam. Nymphaeaceae). Ind Drugs 1995; 32: 392–397.</ref> The binding and disintegration properties of isolated Nelumbo starch have been compared with maize and potato starch; Nelumbo starch is shown to be superior as an adjuvant in the preparation of tablets.<ref>Mukherjee PK. et al. Pharmaceutical application of starch isolated from Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (Fam. Nymphaeaceae). Ind J Pharm Sci 1996; 58: 59–66.</ref> When dried, N. nucifera rhizomes can also be made into flour, another popular use of this vegetable.<ref name="Yu-2002" /><ref name="Tian-2007" />
PipsEdit
Lotus pip tea is consumed in Korea.
SeedsEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
Fresh lotus seeds (Template:Lang-zh) are nutritious but also vulnerable to microbial contamination, especially fungal infections. Therefore, mostly dry lotus seed-based products are found on the market. Traditional sun baking combined with charcoal processing dries the seeds but results in a loss of nutrients. Freeze-dried lotus seeds have a longer shelf life and maintain original nutrients, while no differences in flavour are found after rehydration compared to fresh lotus seeds.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Dry stored lotus seeds are sensitive to moisture and mold infestation; researchers continue to explore new ways to preserve fresh lotus seeds, such as radiation processing.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Lotus seeds can be processed into fillings for moon cake, lotus seed noodles and food in the forms of paste, fermented milk, rice wine, ice cream, popcorn (phool makhana), and others, with lotus seeds as the main raw material. Traditional Chinese medicine claims that fresh lotus seed wine has thirst-quenching, spleen-healing, and anti-diarrheal advantages after drinking, attributed to unspecified bioactive compounds.<ref name="Wu-2013">Wu C, Xia Y, Tang X (2013) Optimization of the fermentation process for lotus rice-wine production by response surface methodology. Mod Food Sci Technol 29:1675–1679</ref><ref name="Zhang-2015" /> Lotus seed tea is consumed in Korea, and lotus embryo tea is consumed in China and Vietnam.<ref name="Zhang-2015" />
StemsEdit
Young lotus stems are used as a salad ingredient in Vietnamese cuisine and as a vegetable ingredient for some soup and curry in Thailand, such as keang som sai bua (Template:Langx, lotus stem sour soup) and keang kati sai bua ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, lotus stem in coconut milk curry).
In northern and eastern regions of India, the stalk of the flower is used to prepare a soup, kamala gaṭṭē kī sabzī (Template:Langx) and an appetizer, kamala kakaṛī pakauṛē (Template:Langx). In South Indian states, the lotus stem is sliced, marinated with salt to dry, and the dried slices are fried and used as a side dish. In Kerala (Template:Langx) and Tamil Nadu, this end product is called thamara vathal.
In the Philippines, an indigenous variety called tukal is used as the main ingredient in dishes with coconut milk. The stems and petals can be bought in markets when in season.
LeavesEdit
In China and Korea, lotus leaf tea (Template:Langx) is made from the leaves of the lotus. It is also used as a wrap for steaming rice and sticky rice and other steamed dishes in Southeast Asian cuisine, such as lo mai gai in Chinese cuisine or kao hor bai bua (Template:Langx), fried rice wrapped in lotus leaf in Thai cuisine.
Vietnamese also use lotus leaves to wrap green young rice, cốm, which is eaten in autumn. The leaves impart a unique scent to the soft, moist rice.
FlowersEdit
In Korea, lotus flower tea (Template:Langx) is made from the dried petals of the white lotus.
The stamens can be dried and made into a fragrant herbal tea (Template:Lang-zh), or used to impart a scent to tea leaves (particularly in Vietnam). This Vietnamese lotus tea is called trà sen, chè sen, or chè ướp sen.
RisksEdit
The petals, leaves, and rhizome can also all be eaten raw, but there is a risk of parasite transmission (e.g., Fasciolopsis buski): it is therefore recommended that they be cooked before eating.
Use in water treatmentEdit
Nelumbo nucifera shows high potential for usage in wastewater treatment removing polluting compounds<ref name="Kanabkaew-2004">Template:Cite journal</ref> and heavy metals.<ref name="Anawar-2008">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Mishra-2009"/><ref name="Gallego-1996">Template:Cite journal</ref> It is able to grow in variable water conditions<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and in low light intensity.<ref name="Kanabkaew-2004" /> Various studies show the successful use of N. nucifera to counteract water eutrophication.<ref name="Kanabkaew-2004" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The leaves of the floating lotus reduce sunlight reaching the lower part of the water. This suppresses algae growth in N. nucifera aquatic systems and thus, the oxygen content is up to 20% higher than in other aquatic plant systems.<ref name="Kanabkaew-2004" /> Due to intense agricultural practices, nitrogen and phosphorus pollution are major problems in aquatic systems. N. nucifera is able to assimilate a higher content of phosphorus than aquatic plants currently used for water remediation (such as water hyacinth). It also assimilates nitrogen ("denitrification") and creates a habitat for bacterial growth in the water body.<ref name="Kanabkaew-2004" /> Through rhizofiltration, heavy metals – including arsenic, copper, and cadmium – can be removed efficiently from the water.<ref name="Anawar-2008" /><ref name="Mishra-2009" /> The results observed are impressive showing 96% of copper and 85% cadmium metals removed after a seven-day incubation period.<ref name="Mishra-2009">Template:Cite journal</ref> The accumulation of heavy metals doesn't show morphological symptoms of metal toxicity;<ref name="Gallego-1996" /> however, the rhizome quality for human consumption needs further study.
Storage and commercializationEdit
Currently, most rhizomes are consumed fresh, and it is not common to store them due to their poor shelf life performance.<ref name="Guo-2009" /> This limits export possibilities for low-income production countries in Asia. Rhizomes quickly lose water, oxidation occurs and nutrient composition changes within a short time after harvest. Optimal storage temperatures range between Template:Convert.<ref name="Guo-2009" /> There are three different approaches to storing rhizomes. By stacking the rhizomes, they are storable and remain fresh for about three weeks. Special stacking with silver sandTemplate:Clarify and soil results in five to six layers that prevent water loss, thus, the rhizome stays fresh for up to two months.<ref name="Guo-2009" /> However, the method is not suitable for commercialization but rather for home use. Hydrogen sulfide fumigation reduces enzymatic browning and therefore ensures rhizome quality.<ref name="Mishra-2009" /> Dipping the rhizomes in a salt solution prevents oxidation and bacterial reproduction, which allows storage for up to five months and greater export ability. This treatment is related to the high cost and inefficient cleaning process before eating the rhizomes.Template:Clarify<ref name="Guo-2009" />
Use in bioengineeringEdit
Nelumbo nucifera contains some thermal-stable proteins that might be useful in protein bioengineering processes. The proteins are characterized by seed longevity used for cell protection and repair under stress.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> There are also several indications that compounds of N. nucifera are used in drug fabrication in human health research for multiple purposes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Lotus leaves possess hydrophobic characteristics, attributed to a waxy coat that prevents water from adhering to the surface. This attribute has influenced the conception of the "lotus effect" in biomimicry and engineering, guiding the design of materials that resist water and remain self-cleaning. Researchers at the National University of Singapore have utilized the water-repelling structure as inspiration for developing eAir, an aero-elastic sensor capable of detecting subtle pressure changes or other environmental stimuli.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Other usesEdit
The distinctive dried seed heads, which resemble the spouts of watering cans, are widely sold throughout the world for decorative purposes and for dried flower arranging.
In Asia, the petals are sometimes used for garnish, while the large leaves are used as a wrap for food, not frequently eaten (for example, as a wrapper for zongzi). Lotus leaves are also used to serve food in various cultures.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
A unique fabric called lotus silk, from the lotus plant fibers, is produced only at Inle Lake, Myanmar, and in Siem Reap, Cambodia.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This thread is used for weaving special robes for Buddha images called kya thingan (lotus robe).
Chemical compositionEdit
The flavonol miquelianin, as well as the alkaloids (+)-(1R)-coclaurine and (−)-(1S)-norcoclaurine, can be found in the leaves of N. nucifera.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The plant also contains nuciferine, neferine, and many other benzylisoquinoline alkaloids with medicinal properties.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Menendez-Perdomo, I. M. and P. J. Facchini (2020). "Isolation and characterization of two O-methyltransferases involved in benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis in sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)." J Biol Chem 295(6): 1598–1612 doi:10.1074/jbc.RA119.011547 Template:PMID</ref>
Health properties and nutrientsEdit
Traditional medicineEdit
Template:More medical citations needed Template:Nutritionalvalue
All parts of Nelumbo nucifera are edible, with the rhizome and seeds being the main consumption parts. Traditionally rhizomes, leaves, and seeds have been used as folk medicines, Ayurveda, Chinese traditional medicine, and oriental medicine.<ref name="Khare CP">Khare CP. Indian Herbal Remedies: Rational Western Therapy, Ayurvedic, and Other Traditional Usage, Botany, 1st edn. USA: Springer, 2004: 326–327.</ref><ref name="Sridhar2007">Sridhar KR, Bhat R. Lotus: a potential nutraceutical source. J Agri Technol 2007; 3: 143–155.</ref> In Chinese medicine, seeds are still used as Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Lotus rhizomes and seeds and their processing by-products are widely consumed in Asia, the Americas, and Oceania for high content of physiologically active substances.<ref name="Mukherjee-2009">Template:Cite journal</ref> Especially in China, lotus seeds are popular with a cultural history going back about 3000 years. As early as the Han Dynasty, lotus seeds were already recorded as sweet, astringent, nourishing the heart and kidney in "Shen Nong's Herbal Classic".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Nowadays there are 22 varieties for the four known Chinese lines, which are found particularly in Jianning (still called "the town of Jianlian lotus seeds in China") and Guangchang ("the town of white lotus seeds in China").<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
These days the perennial aquatic herb is gaining popularity because of its nutraceutical and historical importance<ref name="Mukherjee-2009" /><ref name="Zhang-2015">Template:Cite journal</ref> It will be of economic value if the different parts of lotus can be developed as functional food.<ref name="Sridhar2007" /><ref name="Zhang-2015" /> Because of its special role in human health and richness in nutrients and bioactive substances, the Chinese Ministry of Health approved the use of N. nucifera as both "food and medicine."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
RhizomesEdit
The rhizomes are Template:Convert long, Template:Convert in diameter, yellowish white to yellowish brown, smooth, and with nodes and internodes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Lotus root is a moderate-calorie root vegetable (100 g of root stem provides about 74 calories) and is composed of several vitamins, minerals, and nutrients: 83.80% water, 0.11% fat, 1.56% reducing sugar, 0.41% sucrose, 2.70% crude protein, 9.25% starch, 0.80% fiber, 0.10% ash and 0.06% calcium.<ref name="Mukherjee-1996">Template:Cite journal</ref> 100 g of root provides 44 mg of vitamin C or 73% of daily recommended values (RDA).
Lotus rhizome and its extracts have shown diuretic, psychopharmacological, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, hypoglycemic, antipyretic and antioxidant activities.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Medical citation needed
SeedsEdit
Lotus seeds are mostly oval or spherical, with sizes varying according to varieties. They are generally 1.2–1.8 cm long, with diameters ranging from 0.8 to 1.4 cm and a weight of 1.1–1.4 g. After lotus seeds have been decorticated and peeled, they are edible and rich in nutrients and can be dried for storage. Their nutritional values can differ due to culture environments and varieties.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Not only do these seeds contain proteins of high quality and are rich in a variety of essential amino acids including high contents of albumin (42%) and globulin (27%), they also contain unsaturated fatty acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, calcium, iron, zinc, phosphorus and other trace elements.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> They also provide water-soluble polysaccharides, alkaloids, flavonoids, superoxide dismutase, and other bioactive components.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Lotus seeds also contain particularly large amounts of vitamins, including VB1, VB2, VB6 and Vitamin E.<ref>Zheng B, Zheng J, Zeng S (2003) Analysis of the nutritional composition in Chinese main lotus seed varieties. Acta Nutr Sin 25:153–156</ref><ref>Wu J, Zheng Y, Chen T, Yi J, Qin L, Rahman K, Lin W (2007) Evaluation of the quality of lotus seed of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. from outer space mutation. Food Chem 105:540–547</ref>
The functional components (polyphenols, protein, polysaccharides) in N. nucifera seeds can help combat high blood pressure, diabetes, and gallstones.Template:Citation needed
After lotus seed germination, crude protein and fat levels in the endosperm significantly increase. It is therefore an important method to enhance its nutritional quality.<ref>Xia Y (2012) Effect of germination on chemical and functional properties of lotus seeds. Food Sci 33:91–98</ref><ref name="Zhang-2015" />
- Lotus field.jpg
Lotus field
- Nelumbo Nucifera fruit - botanic garden Adelaide.jpg
Fruit; the dried seed cup is commonly used in flower arrangements.
- Nelumbo nucifera 004.JPG
Developing fruit
- Nelumbo July 2011-3.jpg
Bud of Nelumbo nucifera
- Nelumbo nucifera LOTUS bud.jpg
Bud
- Nelumbo-nucifera-3- 1200.jpg
Flower
Cultural and religious significanceEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
Nelumbo nucifera is a lotus species with historical, cultural and spiritual significance. It is a sacred flower in both Hinduism and Buddhism,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> representing the path to spiritual awakening and enlightenment. Lotus is closely associated with Goddess Lakshmi and her consort Vishnu. In Hindu iconography, Lakshmi is shown either in seated posture or as standing on top of a lotus flower and holding lotuses in two of her four hands. Vishnu is always portrayed with a lotus in one of his hands. Lotus or Padma exemplifies the path of one who leads a dharmic life. One can stay in the darkness, trapped in the comfort of the decaying leaves and murky water or struggle to lead a dharmic life upholding righteousness, following the light and eventually liberate oneself of his/her past thereby leading a prosperous peaceful happy life. Lotus also signifies moksha. The roots of lotus plant intertwined in mud representing the cycle of life and death and the lotus flower symbolizing the serene blissful state of moksha. Lotus is also used to depict the awakening of Kundalini energy in the tantric system of Hinduism.Template:Citation needed
In Hindu literature, lotus petals are used as a simile to adore beautiful eyes of gods and goddesses. For instance, the word Kamalanayana (lotus-eyed) refers to Vishnu and it extols his beautiful eyes and praise him for being the one who holds the gaze/adoration of Kamala (Lakshmi).
Epic Mahabharata details the use of multi-tiered military formation that resembles a blooming lotus called Padmavyuha and its disc-shaped variant Chakravyuha in the 18-day long Kurukshethra war.
Padmasana (Lotus Pose) in Yoga and Sahasrara - thousand petalled lotus chakra in tantra are some examples of the use of lotus imagery.
Lotus has also inspired Indian/Bharatiya architecture and can be seen in domes resembling lotus buds, pillars resembling lotus stalk, arches resembling inverted lotus and other lotus engravings in Hindu/Buddhist temples.
- Hampi si1266.jpg
Lotus bud shaped arches at Hampi
- Lotus, a typical Hindu temple motive, in red sandstone, Qutb complex.jpg
An Indian lotus motif on a Hindu temple
- Lotus Mahal at Hampi, Karnataka.jpg
Lotus Mahal at Hampi
- Lotus temple Delhi.jpg
Lotus temple, Delhi
In Asian art, a lotus throne is a stylized lotus flower used as the seat or base for a figure. It is the normal pedestal for divine figures in Buddhist art and Hindu art and is often seen in Jain art. Originating in Indian art, it followed Indian religions to East Asia in particular. Lotus flowers are also often held by figures.<ref>Jansen, Eva Rudy, The Book of Hindu Imagery: The Gods and their Symbols, p. 18, 1993, Binkey Kok Publications, Template:ISBN, 9789074597074, google books</ref><ref>Krishan, Yuvrajmm, Tadikonda, Kalpana K., The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, pp. 65, 78, 1996, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Template:ISBN, 9788121505659, google books</ref><ref>Moore, Albert C., Klein, Charlotte, Iconography of Religions: An Introduction, p. 148, 1977, Chris Robertson, Template:ISBN, 9780800604882, google books</ref><ref>Rodrigues, H, "The Sacred Lotus Symbol", Mahavidya, 2016</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The Nelumbo nucifera, which is also called (Nilufar Abi in Persian), can be seen in many reliefs of the Achaemenid period (552 BC) such as the statue of Anahita in the Persepolis. The lotus flower was included in Kaveh the blacksmith's Derafsh and later as the flag of the Sasanian Empire Derafsh Kaviani. Today, it is the symbol of Iranians Solar Hijri calendar.
The lotus flower is also mentioned in the Bible.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The lotus flower also holds cultural and religious significance in Ismaili Muslim and related South Asian traditions. For example, in South Asian Ismaili literature, the lotus is compared to the pure soul. A poem describes the lotus' beauty, describing how its delicate white petals remain pure and beautiful, despite its murky environment. Similarly, a pure soul is part of this world, yet is not of this world, much like the circumstances of the lotus. The poem further emphasizes the importance of true knowledge or gnosis, which is likened to the pure rainwater that allows the lotus to flourish. Ismaili belief holds that the true guide provides this true knowledge, without which the pure soul cannot survive. Just as the lotus flower would rather die than drink from a reeking swamp, the pure soul also seeks nourishment solely through true knowledge.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In Chinese culture, the lotus is known as “Lianhua” (蓮花). The Chinese characters “蓮” (蓮) and “花” (花) represent the leaves and flowers of the plant respectively. The lotus holds important cultural significance in Chinese Buddhism, symbolizing purity, enlightenment, and the unfolding of the spiritual self.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
See alsoEdit
- Lotus silk
- Bingdi lotus
- List of vegetables
- The Lotos-Eaters
- Lotus
- Lotus position
- Lotus-eaters
- Palmette
- Tulsi
ReferencesEdit
- Getty, Alice, The gods of northern Buddhism : their history, iconography and progressive evolution through the northern Buddhist countries, 1914, Oxford, fully online
External linksEdit
Template:Commons category multi Template:Sister project
- {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}
- Template:Usurped for aquarium
Template:Symbols of India Template:Worship in Hinduism