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The Manhattan Bridge is a suspension bridge that crosses the East River in New York City, connecting Lower Manhattan at Canal Street with Downtown Brooklyn at the Flatbush Avenue Extension. Designed by Leon Moisseiff, the bridge has a total length of Template:Convert. The bridge is one of four vehicular bridges directly connecting Manhattan Island and Long Island; the nearby Brooklyn Bridge is just slightly farther west, while the Queensboro and Williamsburg bridges are to the north.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The bridge was proposed in 1898 and was originally called "Bridge No. 3" before being renamed the Manhattan Bridge in 1902. Foundations for the bridge's suspension towers were completed in 1904, followed by the anchorages in 1907 and the towers in 1908. The Manhattan Bridge opened to traffic on December 31, 1909, and began carrying streetcars in 1912 and New York City Subway trains in 1915. The eastern upper-deck roadway was installed in 1922. After streetcars stopped running in 1929, the western upper roadway was finished two years later. The uneven weight of subway trains crossing the Manhattan Bridge caused it to tilt to one side, necessitating an extensive reconstruction between 1982 and 2004.
The Manhattan Bridge was the first suspension bridge to use a Warren truss in its design. It has a main span of Template:Convert between two Template:Convert suspension towers. The deck carries seven vehicular lanes, four on an upper level and three on a lower level, as well as four subway tracks, two each flanking the lower-level roadway. The span is carried by four main cables, which travel between masonry anchorages at either side of the bridge, and 1,400 vertical suspender cables. Carrère and Hastings designed ornamental plazas at both ends of the bridge, including an arch and colonnade in Manhattan that is a New York City designated landmark. The bridge's use of light trusses influenced the design of other long suspension bridges in the early 20th century.
DevelopmentEdit
The bridge was the last of the three suspension spans built across the lower East River, following the Brooklyn and Williamsburg bridges.<ref name="The New York Times 1902">Template:Cite news</ref> After the City of Greater New York was formed in 1898, the administration of mayor Robert Anderson Van Wyck formed a plan for what became the Manhattan Bridge; these plans were repeatedly revised and were not finalized until after George B. McClellan Jr. became mayor in 1901.<ref name="nyt-1909-06-06">Template:Cite news</ref> From the outset, the bridge was planned to have a central roadway, streetcar tracks, elevated tracks, and sidewalks, and it was to run straight onto an extension of Flatbush Avenue in Brooklyn.<ref name="p571667503">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite magazine</ref>
In the earliest plans it was to have been called "Bridge No. 3", but was given the name Manhattan Bridge in 1902.<ref name="The New York Times 1902" /> When the name was confirmed in 1904, The New York Times criticized it as "meaningless", lobbied for one after Brooklyn's Wallabout Bay, and railed that the span "would have geographical and historical significance if it were known as the Wallabout Bridge".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 1905, the Times renewed its campaign, stating, "All bridges across the East River are Manhattan bridges. When there was only one, it was well enough to call it the Brooklyn Bridge, or the East River Bridge".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Planning and caissonsEdit
The earliest plans for what became the Manhattan Bridge were designed by R. S. Buck.Template:Sfn<ref name="ABM 1904">Template:Cite magazine</ref>Template:Rp These plans called for a suspension bridge with carbon steel wire cables and a suspended stiffening truss, supported by a pair of towers with eight braced legs. This design would have consisted of a main span of Template:Convert and approaches of Template:Convert each.Template:Sfn In early 1901, the city government approved a motion to acquire land for a suspension tower in Brooklyn;<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> the city shortly began soliciting bids for the tower's foundations.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The contract for the Brooklyn suspension tower was awarded in May 1901.<ref name="n138417512">Template:Cite news</ref>
The caisson under the tower on the Brooklyn side was installed in March 1902; workers excavated dirt for the foundations from within the caisson, a process that was completed in December 1902.<ref name="ER-BR-SE p. 334">Template:Harvnb</ref> Three workers had died while working on the Brooklyn-side tower's caisson.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> A plan for the bridge was announced in early 1903. Elevated and trolley routes would use the Manhattan Bridge, and there would be large balconies and enormous spaces within the towers' anchorages.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Work on the Manhattan caisson had commenced in January 1903; it was towed to position in July, and the caisson work was completed by January 1904.<ref name="nyt-1909-06-06" /> The foundations were completed in March 1904.<ref name="nyt-1909-06-06" /> A $10 million grant for the bridge's construction was granted in May 1904 with the expectation that work on the bridge would start later that year.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The Municipal Art Commission raised objections to one of the bridge's plans in June 1904, which delayed the start of construction.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Another set of plans was unveiled that month by New York City Bridge Commissioner Gustav Lindenthal, in conjunction with Henry Hornbostel.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The proposal also called for each of the suspension towers to be made of four columns, to be braced transversely and hinged to the bottom of the abutments longitudinally. The same span dimensions from Buck's plan were used because work on the masonry pier foundations had already begun.Template:Sfn Additionally, the towers would have contained Modern French detail, while the anchorages would have been used for functions such as meeting halls.Template:Sfn Lindenthal's plan was also rejected<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> due to a dispute over whether his plan, which used eyebars, was better than the more established practice of using wire cables.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Municipal Art Commission voted in September 1904 to use wire cables on the bridge.<ref name="p571602354">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref>
Lindenthal was ultimately dismissed and a new design was commissioned from Leon Moisseiff.<ref name="structurae" />Template:Sfn George Best replaced Lindenthal as the city's bridge commissionerTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and discarded the eyebar plans in favor of the wire cables.<ref name="n138539186">Template:Cite news</ref> Hornbostel was replaced by Carrère and Hastings as architectural consultants.Template:Sfn By late 1904, the disputes over the types of cables had delayed the contract for the bridge's superstructure (composed of its towers and deck).<ref name="n138531749">Template:Cite news</ref> The bridge's completion had been delayed by two years, and its cost had increased by $2 million.<ref name="n138539186" /> The cable dispute was not fully resolved until 1906, when Best's successor James W. Stevenson announced that the bridge would use wire cables.<ref name="p571786490a">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref>
Anchorages, towers, and approach viaductsEdit
Best reviewed bids for the construction of the anchorages in December 1904.<ref name="n138529868">Template:Cite news</ref> The Williams Engineering Company received the $2 million contract for the anchorages' construction.<ref name="n138526137">Template:Cite news</ref> Construction commenced on the Brooklyn anchorage in February 1905 and on the Manhattan anchorage that April.<ref name="n138523343">Template:Cite news</ref> The foundation subcontractors excavated the foundations of each anchorage using sheet pilings.<ref name="n138550087">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Ripley p. 204">Template:Harvnb</ref> Barges were used to transport material from the East River to the anchorages' sites.<ref name="Ripley p. 204" /> Mixers constructed the masonry for the anchorages at a rate of up to Template:Convert per day.<ref name="Ripley p. 205">Template:Harvnb</ref> During mid-1905, officials condemned land in Manhattan and Brooklyn for the bridge's approaches;<ref name="n138526928">Template:Cite news</ref> the land acquisition was partially delayed because the contractors rented out houses that were supposed to be demolished.<ref name="n138549750">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> By the end of the year, the city's bridge department was planning to erect streetcar terminal buildings at either end of the bridge.<ref name="p571667503" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
To avoid the delays that had occurred during the Williamsburg Bridge's construction, Best planned to award a single large contract for the towers and the deck, rather than splitting the work into multiple contracts.<ref name="n138526333">Template:Cite news</ref> He began soliciting bids for the metalwork in July 1905,<ref name="n138531720">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> at which point the bridge was to use Template:Convert of metal.<ref name="p129000387">Template:Cite news</ref> The Pennsylvania Steel Company received the contract in August 1905 after submitting a low bid of $7.248 million,<ref name="The New York Times 1905 s523">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref> and a competing bidder sued to prevent the contract from being awarded to Pennsylvania Steel.<ref name="n138533348">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> In November, a New York Supreme Court judge ruled that the contract with Pennsylvania Steel was illegal, as the bidding process had been designed to shut out other bidders.<ref name="The New York Times 1905 m406">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref> Although Best tried to appeal the Supreme Court's decision,<ref name="The New York Times 1905 n965">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref> the contract was re-advertised anyway; Pennsylvania Steel refused to submit another bid.<ref name="p537167327">Template:Cite news</ref> When Stevenson became the bridge commissioner at the beginning of 1906, he ordered that new bridge specifications be created.<ref name="n138548685">Template:Cite news</ref> Stevenson received bids for the steelwork in May 1906,<ref name="p537167327" /><ref name="p144643797">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> and the Ryan-Parker Construction Company received the contract the next month, following delays caused by an injunction and threats of lawsuits.<ref name="n138539932">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref>
The Ryan-Parker Company hired the Phoenix Bridge Company in September 1906 to fabricate the steelwork.<ref name="n138550254">Template:Cite news</ref> The Phoenix Bridge Company's 2,000 workers began making beams, girders, eyebars, and other parts of the bridge at the firm's factory in Phoenixville, Pennsylvania.<ref name="n138579192">Template:Cite news</ref> The anchorages were less than half complete, in part because of inclement weather and material shortages.<ref name="n138550087" /> That November, the Board of Estimate and Apportionment approved $4 million for land acquisition in Manhattan and $300,000 for land acquisition in Brooklyn.<ref name="p129105464">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> By early 1907, the city had spent over $6 million on the bridge;<ref name="n138580906">Template:Cite news</ref> the bridge's total cost was estimated at $20 million.<ref name="n138582414">Template:Cite news</ref> To speed up the bridge's completion, Manhattan borough president Bird Sim Coler considered implementing night shifts.<ref name="p571947857a">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> By February 1907, the Phoenix Bridge Company was manufacturing steel faster than it could be installed,<ref name="n138581156">Template:Cite news</ref> and the steel for the anchorages was done.<ref name="n138581218">Template:Cite news</ref> The company had also begun fabricating beams for the towers.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Land acquisition for an extension of Flatbush Avenue to the bridge began in March,<ref name="n138582183">Template:Cite news</ref> and the first steel girders of the towers were lifted in place the next month.<ref name="n138582327">Template:Cite news</ref> The first steel pedestals for the towers were installed on June 26, 1907.<ref name="n138585713">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="n138585751">Template:Cite news</ref> The anchorages were nearly done by late 1907; they could not be completed until the cables were finished.<ref name="p571995180">Template:Cite news</ref>
The city government acquired land for the approaches in October 1907; this required the relocation of several hundred families in Brooklyn<ref name="n138588324">Template:Cite news</ref> and nearly 1,000 families in Manhattan.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In total, about 145 lots in Brooklyn and 173 lots in Manhattan were obtained for the bridge's approaches and plazas.<ref name="p572045467">Template:Cite news</ref> Some Brooklyn residents requested additional time to relocate.<ref name="n138588324" /> Residents in the path of the Manhattan approach also protested efforts to evict them,<ref name="p571981215">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> though they were relocated at the beginning of December 1907.<ref name="nyt-1907-12-03">Template:Cite news</ref> Later that month, four companies submitted bids for the construction of the bridge's Manhattan and Brooklyn approach spans.<ref name="p129028537">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> John C. Rodgers submitted a low bid of $2.17 million for the viaducts,<ref name="n138588838">Template:Cite news</ref> and Stevenson requested that amount from the Board of Estimate.<ref name="n138588872">Template:Cite news</ref> By the beginning of 1908, most of the land had been cleared, and the suspension towers had been built to above the height of the deck.<ref name="n138592853">Template:Cite news</ref> The Manhattan tower was finished that March,<ref name="n138593749">Template:Cite news</ref> followed by the Brooklyn tower the next month.<ref name="n138599081">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Land acquisition was nearly done by the middle of that year.<ref name="p572045467" />
Cables and deckEdit
Andrew McC. Parker of the Ryan-Parker Company had predicted in January 1908 that the cables would be strung within two months.<ref name="p572009250">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The Roebling & Sons Company started manufacturing the wires for the cables before the towers were finished,<ref name="n138593749" /> while the Glyndon Contracting Company was hired to lay the wires.<ref name="p882958340">Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="n138604732">Template:Cite news</ref> Around Template:Convert of nickel steel wires were manufactured at the Carbon Steel Works in Pittsburgh.<ref name="n138604732" /><ref name="n138605187a">Template:Cite news</ref> Workers began stringing temporary cables on June 15, 1908; the first wire broke loose while it was being strung, injuring two people.<ref name="p572056742">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> By this time, the construction cost had increased to $22 million.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The temporary cables supported temporary footbridges between each tower,<ref>Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> which were completed in mid-July.<ref name="p564190408">Template:Cite news</ref> When the footbridges were finished, workers installed guide wires,<ref name="n138602393">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> which were laid as continuous loops.<ref name="p882958340" /> Two guide wheels, one at either end of each guide wire, carried the main cables' wires across the river between each anchorage.<ref name="p882958340" /><ref name="n138603646">Template:Cite news</ref> These wheels were powered by a motor atop the Brooklyn anchorage. In addition, reels of wire were stored at both ends of the bridge.<ref name="p882958340" /> The guide wheels laid up to Template:Convert of wire every day.<ref name="n138605187a" />
The last wires for the main cables were strung in December 1908.<ref name="p572203060">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> That month, the Board of Estimate and Apportionment hired engineer Ralph Modjeski to review the engineering drawings for the Manhattan Bridge,<ref name="p572215430">Template:Cite news</ref> after the City Club of New York expressed concerns over the bridge's safety.<ref name="n138605721">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Afterward, the Glyndon Construction Company installed the vertical suspender cables,<ref name="n138608200">Template:Cite news</ref> which were hung from the main cables.<ref name="n138608982">Template:Cite news</ref> By the beginning of 1909, the bridge was planned to open at the end of the year, but the subway tracks, streetcar tracks, and Flatbush Avenue Extension were not complete.<ref name="n138607759">Template:Cite news</ref> Around Template:Convert of red steel girders and floor panels for the bridge's deck had been delivered to a yard in Bayonne, New Jersey.<ref name="nyt-1909-02-28">Template:Cite news</ref> The girders and panels were delivered to the bridge's site starting in February 1909,<ref name="p507919377">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> and the first floor panel in the main span was installed the same month.<ref name="nyt-1909-02-25">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Each of the girders was hung from a pair of suspender cables, and floor panels were hung between the girders at a rate of four panels a day.<ref name="p572236963">Template:Cite news</ref> It took workers three weeks to install the floor panels;<ref name="p572139521">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="n138608593">Template:Cite news</ref> and the last panel was installed on April 7, 1909.<ref name="p572272082">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref>
The bridge commissioner received $1 million from the Board of Estimate and Apportionment for the completion of the roadway, subway tracks, and other design details.<ref name="n138417746">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The trusses and side spans were built after the floor of the main span was completed.<ref name="n138608593" /> Carbon Steel began wrapping the main cables together in May 1909;<ref name="n138609079">Template:Cite news</ref> the wrapping process required Template:Convert of wire, and the company was able to wrap five to seven segments of cables per day.<ref name="n138609892">Template:Cite news</ref> All work on the cables was finished in August 1909, almost exactly a year after the first strand of the first main cable was strung.<ref name="n138609892" /><ref name="p572294694a">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Workers then installed ornamentation on the tops of the towers and bronze collars on each of the main cables.<ref name="n138609892" /> Modjeski reported that September that the bridge was safe.<ref name="p572268958">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="n138610151">Template:Cite news</ref> At the time, the plazas were incomplete, and Flatbush Avenue Extension was unpaved;<ref name="n138610151" /> the bridge commissioner was razing buildings near the Manhattan plaza by that November.<ref name="p508018831">Template:Cite news</ref> The Brooklyn Daily Eagle reported that there was widespread discontent over the fact that streetcar and subway service would not be ready for the bridge's opening.<ref name="n138650426">Template:Cite news</ref>
Operational historyEdit
Opening and early historyEdit
Stevenson announced at the end of November 1909 that the bridge's roadways would likely open by December 24, although the transit lines and pedestrian walkways were not complete.<ref name="n138656133">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> One hundred prominent Brooklyn citizens walked over the bridge on December 4, 1909;<ref name="nyt19091205">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="n138414280">Template:Cite news</ref> at the time, the subway tracks were unfinished, and there was uncertainty over which company would use the streetcar tracks.<ref name="n138414280" /> Outgoing mayor George B. McClellan Jr. toured the bridge on December 24.<ref name="nyt-1909-12-25">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The span officially opened on December 31, 1909,<ref name="NYTimes-Open-1910a">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> at a final cost of $26 million, although work was still incomplete.<ref name="n138485104">Template:Cite news</ref> Empty commercial vehicles tended to use the Manhattan Bridge, while trucks with full loads used the Brooklyn Bridge, since the Manhattan Bridge's wood-block pavement was less sturdy than the Brooklyn Bridge's plank pavement.<ref name="n138518209">Template:Cite news</ref>
A fire on the Brooklyn side damaged the bridge in early 1910, necessitating the replacement of some cables and steel.<ref name="p145031390">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Though both of the Manhattan Bridge's footpaths were initially closed to the public, the northern footpath opened in July 1910;<ref name="nyt-1910-07-15">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> the southern footpath was scheduled to be opened the next month.<ref name="n138520095">Template:Cite news</ref> Streetcars began running across the bridge in September 1912,<ref name="p129312013">Template:Cite news; {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and the bridge's subway tracks opened in June 1915.<ref name="Brooklyn Daily Eagle 1915" /> By the mid-1910s, a food market operated under the bridge.<ref name="p97561411">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Meanwhile, C. J. Sullivan sued the Ryan-Parker Construction Company, claiming that he had helped the company secure the general contract for the bridge. He was awarded just over $300,000 in 1912,<ref>Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> an amount that was increased to over $380,000 in 1916.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
After the bridge opened, Carrère and Hastings drew up preliminary plans for a Beaux Arts-style entrance to the bridge in Manhattan and a smaller approach on the Brooklyn side.Template:Sfn The city's Municipal Art Commission approved a $700,000 plan for the bridge's Manhattan approach in April 1910.<ref name="p508094628">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The final plans were approved in 1912,<ref name="n102511095">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> and construction began the same year.<ref name="Gray 1996">Template:Cite news</ref> The city allocated $675,000 for a plaza at the Brooklyn end in March 1913, including a subway tunnel under the plaza,<ref name="p97394049">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> and the Northeastern Construction Company submitted the low bid for the plaza's construction.<ref name="n138520938">Template:Cite news</ref> The arch and colonnade were completed in 1915,<ref name="nycland" /> while the pylons on the Brooklyn side were installed in November 1916.Template:Sfn<ref name="The New York Times 1964">Template:Cite news</ref> The bridge approaches cost just over $1.53 million to construct.<ref name="p509557732">Template:Cite news</ref> In an attempt to speed up automotive traffic, in 1918, the New York City Police Department banned horse-drawn vehicles from crossing the bridge toward Brooklyn during the morning rush hour and toward Manhattan during the evening rush hour.<ref name="n138658323">Template:Cite news</ref> One of the two streetcar lines across the bridge was discontinued in 1919.<ref name="n138663556" />
1920s to 1940sEdit
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During late 1920, the bridge's roadway was used as a reversible lane between 7 am and 7 pm each day;<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> this restriction caused heavy congestion.<ref name="n138664191">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="n138665132">Template:Cite news</ref> Grover Whalen, the commissioner of Plant and Structures, announced that September that he would request funding to repaint the bridge.<ref name="n138665132" /> The span was repainted during the next year at a cost of $240,000.<ref name="n138665835">Template:Cite news</ref> Meanwhile, the bridge was carrying 27,000 daily vehicles by the early 1920s,<ref name="n138674492">Template:Cite news</ref> and one traffic judge said the lower deck was too narrow to accommodate the increasing traffic levels on the bridge.<ref name="n138674750">Template:Cite news</ref> In March 1922, the city government started constructing the eastern upper-deck roadway at a cost of $300,000.<ref name="n138674244">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The roadway opened that June.<ref name="n138674244" /><ref name="The New York Times 1922">Template:Cite news</ref> The next month, Whalen banned horse-drawn vehicles from the Manhattan Bridge and motor vehicles from the Brooklyn Bridge. The upper roadway of the Manhattan Bridge was converted to a reversible lane, while the lower roadway carried two-way traffic at all times.<ref name="nyt-1922-07-07">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Whalen said the restriction would allow both levels to be used to their full capacity;<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> the decision ended up placing additional loads on the bridge.<ref name="n138680819">Template:Cite news</ref>
To reduce congestion at the Manhattan end, left-hand traffic was implemented on the lower level during the 1920s, as most vehicles heading into Manhattan turned left at the end of the bridge.<ref name="n138680473">Template:Cite news</ref> Motorists continued to use the Manhattan Bridge even after the Brooklyn Bridge reopened to motorists in 1925, contributing to heavy congestion during rush hours.<ref name="p1113175935a">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> At the time, the Brooklyn Bridge carried 10,000 vehicles a day (in part due to its low speed limit), while the Manhattan Bridge carried 60,000 vehicles daily.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> When the lower level was repaved in early 1927, Manhattan-bound traffic was temporarily banned from the lower level at night.<ref>Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> That October, Brooklyn borough president James J. Byrne proposed replacing the Three Cent Line's trolley tracks with a roadway; he estimated that it would cost $9 million to construct a brand-new roadway, while converting the trolley tracks would cost only $600,000.<ref>Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The comptroller approved the plan in September 1928,<ref name="n138720898">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> and the city formally voted to buy the Three Cent Line for just over $200,000 the following month.<ref name="The New York Times 1929 t828">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref> The Three Cent Line was discontinued in November 1929.<ref name="p1111747012">Template:Cite news; {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The Three Cent Line tracks were replaced by the western upper-deck roadway.<ref name="p1114109302">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Initially scheduled to be completed by July 1930,<ref name="n138725636">Template:Cite news</ref> the roadway ultimately opened in June 1931 and carried Brooklyn-bound traffic.<ref name="p1114109302" /><ref name="nyt-1931-06-19">Template:Cite news</ref> The eastern upper-deck roadway was converted to carry Manhattan-bound traffic,<ref name="nyt-1931-06-19" /> and the center roadway was turned into a lane for buses and trucks.<ref name="p1114107738">Template:Cite news</ref> At the time, nearly 65,000 vehicles used the bridge every day, of which nearly a quarter were buses and trucks.<ref name="nyt-1931-06-19" /> A set of 119 streetlights were installed on the upper level the following year.<ref name="The New York Times 1932 f256">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> To increase traffic flow, both upper roadways were temporarily converted to reversible lanes during rush hours in 1934;<ref name="The New York Times 1934 j783">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref> the lower roadway was repaired,<ref name="p1242981411">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> and the bridge was repainted the same year.<ref name="n138727466">Template:Cite news</ref> The city's commissioner of plant and structures also requested $725,000 in federal funds for various repairs.<ref name="The New York Times 1934 v371">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref> During 1937, the city awarded a contract to repair the bridge's steelwork<ref name="The New York Times 1937 y044">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and raised the railings on the upper roadways.<ref name="The New York Times 1937 a974">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The city government announced in 1938 that it would replace the lower deck's wooden pavement with a steel-and-concrete pavement;<ref name="The New York Times 1938 g380">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the repaving was completed that December.<ref name="The New York Times 1938 f372">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref> Simultaneously, the railings on the upper roadways were raised again.<ref name="n138735604">Template:Cite news</ref>
As part of a Works Progress Administration project, a ramp at the Brooklyn end of the bridge was widened in 1941, replacing a dangerous reverse curve.<ref name="The New York Times 1941 u897">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="n138740226">Template:Cite news</ref> By then, 90,000 vehicles a day used the span.<ref name="n138740226" /> An air raid siren was also installed on the bridge during World War II.<ref name="The New York Times 1942 t962">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref> By the mid-1940s, the Brooklyn approach to the bridge was one of the most congested areas in New York City.<ref name="The New York Times 1946 v190">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
1950s to 1970sEdit
The upper roadways were repaired during 1950.<ref name="p448817053">Template:Cite news</ref> Similar repairs to the lower roadway were postponed until the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel opened, as the Brooklyn Bridge was also being rebuilt around the same time.<ref name="p448817053" /><ref name="n138815294">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> To ease congestion, the Manhattan Bridge's western upper roadway began carrying Manhattan-bound traffic during the morning in March 1950.<ref name="The New York Times 1950 i000">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Floodlights and barbed-wire fences were installed at the bases of the bridge's anchorages in 1951, during the Cold War, and the anchorages themselves were sealed to protect against sabotage.<ref name="Gray 2004">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Manhattan-bound traffic stopped using the western upper roadway during the morning in August 1952. Instead, two of the three lower-level lanes began carrying Manhattan-bound traffic during the morning; previously, Manhattan-bound vehicles could use only one of the lower-level lanes at all times.<ref name="The New York Times 1952 e987">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref> By the mid-1950s, there were frequent car accidents on the Manhattan Bridge, which injured 411 people and killed nine people between 1953 and 1955 alone.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In addition, the bridge carried nearly 79,000 cars, 18,000 trucks, and 200 buses on an average day.<ref name="EC pp. 278, 280">Template:Harvnb</ref>
1950s repair projectEdit
The city's public works commissioner, Frederick H. Zurmuhlen, requested in early 1952 that the Board of Estimate hire David B. Steinman to thoroughly examine the Manhattan Bridge, saying its maintenance costs were disproportionately higher than those of the other East River bridges.<ref name="The New York Times 1952 y051">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A beam on the eastern side of the bridge cracked in April 1953<ref name="The New York Times 1953 u988">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="p1322303107">Template:Cite news</ref> and was fixed within a month.<ref name="The New York Times 1953 l170">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Following the cracked-beam incident, Zurmuhlen asked the city to allocate $2.69 million to repair the bridge, as trains disproportionately used one side of the bridge, causing it to tilt.<ref name="The New York Times 1953 n510">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="p1322339872">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Two proposals were put forth for the bridge's subway tracks; one plan called for them to be moved to the center of the deck,<ref name="n138822469">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="The New York Times 1954 n584" /> while another plan called for the construction of an entirely new tunnel for subway trains.<ref name="The New York Times 1954 j968">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="n138825967">Template:Cite news</ref> The administration of mayor Robert F. Wagner tentatively approved a $30 million renovation of the bridge in July 1954,<ref name="The New York Times 1954 n584">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and a committee of engineers was hired to review alternate proposals for the bridge.<ref name="n138825967" /> Zurmuhlen said the bridge's safety would be compromised within the next decade if subway trains continued to use the bridge.<ref name="The New York Times 1955 z095">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref>
By February 1955, the city had hired a contractor to repair the Manhattan Bridge's cable bands and hangers for $2.2 million.<ref name="The New York Times 1955 z095" /> Before these repairs could begin, engineers surveyed the bridge.<ref name="The New York Times 1955 n849">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref> When work on the cables began in June, access to the western upper roadway was severely reduced.<ref name="p1328071519a">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> That September, the eastern upper roadway was closed for repairs;<ref name="The New York Times 1955 f224">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the western upper roadway was used by Manhattan-bound traffic during weekday mornings and carried two-way traffic at other times.<ref name="The New York Times 1955 z096">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The bridge was temporarily closed to all traffic in November 1955.<ref name="The New York Times 1955 q907">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The eastern upper roadway was again closed during the midday in early 1956 for suspender cable repairs,<ref name="The New York Times 1956 p609">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and the whole span was closed during nights in June 1956.<ref name="The New York Times 1956 v138">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref> All lanes were again open by that August.<ref name="The New York Times 1956 u571">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The city had still not decided whether to move the subway tracks to a double-deck structure in the middle of the bridge, even though that plan would have reduced strain on the cables.<ref name="EC p. 282">Template:Harvnb</ref> For unknown reasons, the tracks were never moved.<ref name="n26647669">Template:Cite news</ref>
Other modificationsEdit
Plans for the Brooklyn–Queens Expressway in Brooklyn, which was constructed in the 1950s, included ramps to the Manhattan Bridge.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Lane control lights were installed above the bridge's reversible lower-level lanes in early 1958, and fixed red and green lights were installed on the upper-level roadways.<ref name="The New York Times 1958 h635">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The same year, the city spent $50,000 on repairs after two boats collided on the East River, causing an explosion that scorched the bridge.<ref name="The New York Times 1958 v398">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; Template:Cite news</ref> The city announced in 1959 that it would rebuild the upper roadways to accommodate trucks.<ref name="The New York Times 1959 v888">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Karl Koch Engineering Company received a contract to rebuild the upper roadways;<ref name="The New York Times 1960 w665">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the project was planned to cost $6.377 million.<ref name="The New York Times 1960 w665" /><ref name="n1379270852">Template:Cite news</ref> The eastern upper roadway was closed for repairs in September 1960; the project also included fixing the lower deck and building ramps from the Brooklyn-Queens Expressway.<ref name="n138839187">Template:Cite news</ref> After the eastern upper roadway reopened in November 1961, the western upper roadway was closed, and the eastern upper roadway was temporarily used as a reversible lane.<ref name="The New York Times 1961 o540">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Work proceeded several months ahead of schedule.<ref name="n1379270852" />
In conjunction with the upgrades to the upper roadways, in June 1961, New York City parks commissioner Robert Moses proposed demolishing the plazas on both sides and connecting the bridge to new expressways. The bridge would have linked the Lower Manhattan Expressway with the Brooklyn-Queens Expressway,<ref name="The New York Times 1961 k198">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="n138841096">Template:Cite news</ref> though the former was never built.<ref name=":0" /> The city's art commission delayed the demolition of the plazas<ref name="The New York Times 1961 w336">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> before ruling that the pylons in the Brooklyn plaza be relocated to the Brooklyn Museum or another suitable location.<ref name="The New York Times 1961 s024">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Wagner said in late 1962 that he would request $2.9 million to rebuild the approaches at both ends of the bridge;<ref name="n138841634">Template:Cite news</ref> the work included a widening of an approach road at the bridge's Manhattan end.<ref name=n138842594>Template:Cite news</ref> The pylons flanking the Brooklyn approach were moved to the Brooklyn Museum in 1963.<ref name="The New York Times 1964" /> The western upper roadway was closed for repairs for a year beginning in August 1969.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Two of the lower roadway's lanes were closed for four months starting in November 1970 so workers could replace faulty joints.<ref>Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref>
Late 20th- and early 21st-century renovationEdit
The weight of the subway trains had caused deep and widespread cracks to form in the bridge's floor beams,<ref name="p512217520">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> prompting the city government to replace 300 deteriorated beams during the late 1970s.<ref name="nyt-1978-03-27">Template:Cite news</ref> The deck twisted up to Template:Convert every time a train passed by,<ref name="n139432047">Template:Cite news</ref> and trains had to slow down on the bridge.<ref name="n139431654">Template:Cite news</ref> A New York Times reporter wrote that diagonal cable stays might eventually need to be installed;<ref name="nyt-1978-03-27" /> the city government also contemplated installing support towers under the side spans.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The bridge's condition was blamed on the imbalance in the number of trains crossing the bridge, as well as deferred maintenance during the New York City fiscal crisis of the 1970s.<ref name="Sims 1991">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="p277898669">Template:Cite news</ref> In 1979, the New York state government took over control of the Queensboro, Williamsburg, Manhattan, and Brooklyn bridges.<ref name="p277898669" /> One engineer estimated in 1988 that the bridge would cost $162.6 million to repair.<ref name="n141810188">Template:Cite news</ref>
Late 1970s and 1980sEdit
The state government started inspecting the Manhattan Bridge and five others in 1978.<ref name="nyt-1978-03-26">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The same year, the United States Congress voted to allocate money to repair the bridge, as well as several others in New York City.<ref name="Goldman1981">Template:Cite news</ref> After the presidential administration of Ronald Reagan questioned whether the congressional funding should cover the subway tracks' restoration, the U.S. government agreed in 1981 to fund restoration both of the roadways and of the subway tracks.<ref name="Goldman1981" /> By the early 1980s, the New York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT) planned to spend $100 million on bridge repairs.<ref name="n139502494">Template:Cite news</ref> The New York City government allocated $10.1 million for preliminary work on the bridge in March 1982,<ref name=n129137709>Template:Cite news</ref> and minor repair work started that year.<ref name="Pierre-Pierre 1996" /> Workers planned to install brackets and supports under the deck,<ref name="n139435742">Template:Cite news</ref> and they drilled small holes into the lower-level floor beams unsuccessful attempt to prevent the beams from cracking further.<ref name="n129134966">Template:Cite news</ref> An overhaul of the bridge began in April 1985,<ref name="nyt-1986-11-08">Template:Cite news</ref> and the city received $60 million in federal funds for the renovations of the Queensboro, Manhattan, and Brooklyn bridges the same year.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The north tracks were closed that August,<ref name="n141736858">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> reopening that November after an $8.1 million repair.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The eastern upper roadway was temporarily closed starting in April 1986, and all northbound traffic was shifted to the lower level,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="p285418415">Template:Cite news</ref> as part of a $45 million project to replace the roadway and its steel supports.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The north tracks underneath were closed that month.<ref name="The New York Times 1986">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The roadway was originally supposed to reopen within 15 months,<ref name="p285418415" /> but contractors found that one of the anchors for the main cables was far more corroded than anticipated, delaying the eastern roadway's reopening by another 18 months.<ref name="n138036613">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The renovation of the Manhattan Bridge was behind schedule by the end of 1986, in part because of the corrosion.<ref name="p285419460">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="nyt-1986-11-08" /> Legal issues, traffic reroutes, and concerns about the capabilities of the main contractor were also cited as causes for the delays in the renovation.<ref name="nyt-1986-11-08" /> Inspectors subsequently found that twenty of the girders below the lower deck had cracks as much as Template:Convert wide.<ref name="p277898669" /><ref name="n129134966" /> Due to the cracks on the lower level, in December 1987, inspectors shut one lane of the lower level and banned buses and trucks from the two remaining lower-level lanes.<ref name="p277898669" /><ref name="n129134966" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The city government agreed to pay $750,000 to fix the cracks.<ref name="p277898669" />
In 1988, the NYCDOT published a list of 17 structurally deficient bridges in the city, including the Manhattan Bridge.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> That year, inspectors identified 73 "flags" or potentially serious defects, compared to the five defects identified in a 1978 inspection.<ref name="p277966538a">Template:Cite news</ref> As a result, the general contractor was ousted in August 1988, and the New York State Department of Transportation had to hire another contractor, increasing the project's cost.<ref name="p277966538a" /><ref name="nyt-1988-08-18">Template:Cite news</ref> The eastern roadway of the Manhattan Bridge reopened in December 1988;<ref name="p278082782">Template:Cite news</ref> the north tracks also reopened at that time, and the south tracks were closed.<ref name="p278125858">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Although the NYCDOT had planned to halt work for 16 months,<ref name="p278082782" /> the western roadway was closed for emergency repairs in February 1989 after two corroded beams sagged.<ref name="p278097472">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Newsday reported that the western roadway had urgently required repair for almost three years but had remained open to avoid shutting down all four of the bridge's subway tracks at once.<ref name="p278121052">Template:Cite news</ref> The cables, trusses, and subway frame on the eastern half of the bridge had to be repaired, and the lower roadway needed complete replacement.<ref name="n141839624">Template:Cite news</ref> After seven columns supporting the Brooklyn approach were found to be cracked or corroded, these columns were repaired in late 1989.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
1990sEdit
By the end of 1990, engineers found that the bridge's support beams had thousands of cracks.<ref name="nyt-1990-12-17">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="n129132292">Template:Cite news</ref> Service on the south tracks resumed in December 1990, despite warnings the structure was unsafe;<ref name="NYT-SimsJan8">Template:Cite news</ref> they had to be closed again after the discovery of corroded support beams and missing steel plates.<ref name="nyt-1990-12-28">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The north-side tracks also had to be closed periodically to repair cracks.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In the aftermath of the dispute, two city officials were fired,<ref>Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> and the New York City Council's Transportation committee held inquiries on the reopening of the south tracks and the safety of all New York City bridges.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> They found that the NYCDOT and MTA's lack of cooperation contributed significantly to the deteriorating conditions.<ref>Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Sims 1991"/> There were also allegations that the NYCDOT's transportation commissioner was not properly addressing concerns about the bridge's safety.<ref name="p278339673">Template:Cite news</ref> Starting in January 1991, trucks and buses were banned from the lower roadway, which was also closed for repairs during nights and weekends.<ref name="p278316498">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Meanwhile, the weight of heavy trucks created holes in the upper roadbed, so a three-ton weight limit was imposed.<ref name="p278466759">Template:Cite news</ref>
The NYCDOT selected the Yonkers Contracting Company as the bridge's main contractor in early 1992,<ref name="p278473672">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> and the firm was awarded a $97.8 million contract that August.<ref name="Weber 1992 g220">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> City Comptroller Elizabeth Holtzman originally denied the contract to the company because of concerns about corruption,<ref name=p278514453>Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> but she was overridden by Mayor David Dinkins, who wanted to complete repairs quickly.<ref name="Fritsch 1992">Template:Cite news</ref> The NYCDOT began conducting more frequent inspections of the bridge after inspectors found holes in beams that had been deemed structurally sound during previous inspections.<ref name="p278531409">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> A shantytown at the Manhattan end of the bridge became one of the city's largest homeless encampments before it was razed in 1993.<ref name="Fisher 1993 k986">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The western upper roadway was closed for reconstruction that year.<ref name=":1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> As part of an experiment, researchers from Mount Sinai Hospital monitored lead levels in Manhattan Bridge workers' blood while the reconstruction took place.<ref name="p278624192">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite magazine</ref>
The bridge repairs were repeatedly delayed as the renovation process uncovered more serious structural problems underlying the bridge. The original plans had been to complete the renovations by 1995 for $150 million, but by 1996, the renovation was slated to be complete in 2003 at a cost of $452 million.<ref name="Pierre-Pierre 1996">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The western upper roadway did not reopen until 1996.<ref name=":1" />
2000sEdit
By 2001, it was estimated that the renovations had cost $500 million to date, including $260 million for the west side and another $175 million for the east side. At the time, the NYCDOT had set a January 2004 deadline for the renovation.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The eastern upper roadway was closed for a renovation starting in 2002.<ref name="The New York Times 2002 e897">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The original pedestrian walkway on the west side of the bridge was reopened in June 2001, having been closed for 20 years.<ref name="Newman 2001">Template:Cite news</ref> It was shared with bicycles until late summer 2004, when a dedicated bicycle path was opened on the east side of the bridge. The bike path was poorly signed, leading to cyclist and pedestrian conflicts.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> By the time work on the bridge was completed in 2004, the final cost of the renovation totaled $800 million.<ref name="Gray 2004" /> The lower-level roadway was then renovated between 2004 and 2008.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The arch and colonnade had also become deteriorated, having become covered with graffiti and dirt. The enclosed plaza within the colonnade had been used as a parking lot by the New York City Police Department, while the only remaining portion of the large park surrounding the arch and colonnade, at Canal and Forsyth Streets, had accumulated trees. The arch and colonnade themselves had open joints in the stonework, as well as weeds, bushes, and small trees growing at their top.<ref name="Gray 1996" /> The arch and colonnade were restored starting in the late 1990s, with the restoration being completed in April 2001 for $11 million. The project entailed cleaning the structures and installing 258 floodlights.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Late 2000s to presentEdit
_02_-_Manhattan_Bridge.jpg){kind=link}
To celebrate the bridge's centennial, a series of events and exhibits were organized by the New York City Bridge Centennial Commission in October 2009. These included a ceremonial parade across the Manhattan Bridge on the morning of October 4 and a fireworks display in the evening.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 2009, the bridge was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers.<ref name="ascemetsection">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> An $834 million project to replace the Manhattan Bridge's suspension cables was announced in 2010. The work was scheduled to take two years.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The lower roadway was permanently reconfigured in July 2015 to carry traffic toward Manhattan only; prior to this change, the lower roadway carried traffic toward Brooklyn for six hours every afternoon.<ref name="Spectrum News NY1 2015 n916">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The same year, the NYCDOT began allowing Brooklyn-bound drivers to exit onto Concord Street in Brooklyn at all times; previously, drivers could only exit onto Concord Street during the afternoon rush hours.<ref name="Leon 2015 g922">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Concord Street exit was again closed outside the afternoon rush hour in early 2016.<ref name="Gill 2016 w015">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> After rubble was found in Brooklyn Bridge Park under the Brooklyn approach in 2018, Skanska was given a contract to repair parts of the bridge at a cost of $75.9 million. The renovation was scheduled to finish in early 2021. The work entailed replacing some fencing, installing some new steel beams on the spans, and refurbishing ornamental elements on the towers.<ref name="Gannon 2018">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> For instance, the spherical finials atop the suspension towers were replaced with cast-iron copies.<ref name="Young 2019">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The National Transportation Safety Board recommended in early 2025 that the bridge undergo a structural vulnerability assessment, following the Francis Scott Key Bridge collapse in Maryland the previous year.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
DescriptionEdit
The bridge, including approaches but excluding plazas, is about Template:Convert long.<ref name="n138523343" />Template:Sfn The bridge reaches a maximum height of Template:Convert above mean high water at the middle of the river.<ref name="NOAA">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The main span between the two suspension towers is Template:Convert long.<ref name="n138665835" /><ref name="NYCL (2007) p. 87">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="SA 1908a p. 77">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="Chapin Publishing Company 1904 p. 10-PA13">Template:Cite magazine</ref>Template:Efn The side spans, between the anchorages and the suspension towers on either side, are Template:Convert long.<ref name="NYCL (2007) p. 87" /><ref name="SA 1908a p. 77" /> When the bridge was built, the Manhattan approach and plaza were quoted as being Template:Convert long, while the Brooklyn approach and plaza were quoted as measuring Template:Convert long.<ref name="p572045467" /> The bridge's dead load is Template:Convert, and its live load is Template:Convert.<ref name="n138577995">Template:Cite news</ref>
The bridge was designed by Leon Moisseiff.<ref name="structurae" />Template:Sfn The plans for Manhattan Bridge are sometimes mistakenly attributed to Gustav Lindenthal, who was the city's bridge commissioner before he was fired in 1904.<ref name="enc-nyc">Template:Cite enc-nyc2</ref> The steel was fabricated by the Phoenix Bridge Company.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
DeckEdit
The Manhattan Bridge has four vehicle lanes on the upper level, split between two roadways carrying opposite directions of traffic. The southbound roadway to Brooklyn is on the west side of the bridge, while the northbound roadway to Manhattan is on the east side. The lower level has three Manhattan-bound vehicle lanes (formerly reversible until 2015<ref name="Spectrum News NY1 2015 n916" />) and four rapid transit/subway tracks, two under each of the upper roadways.<ref name="EC p. 278">Template:Harvnb</ref> Also on the lower level are a walkway on the south (geographically facing west) and a bikeway on the north side (geographically facing east).<ref name="NYCDOT Manhattan Bridge">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Originally, there were four streetcar tracks above the four rapid transit tracks.<ref name="n138585713" /><ref name="Chapin Publishing Company 1904 p. 10-PA13" /> Although both levels could theoretically have accommodated either streetcars or elevated rapid transit,<ref name="n138589132">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> subways could use only the lower level because subway trains would have needed to climb an excessively steep slope to reach the upper level.<ref name="p571667503" />
The deck is Template:Convert wide.<ref name="Chapin Publishing Company 1904 p. 10-PA13" /> As designed, the lower-level roadway was Template:Convert<ref name="Chapin Publishing Company 1904 p. 10-PA13" /> or Template:Convert wide.<ref name="n138577995" /><ref name="n138527196" /><ref name="SA 1908a p. 78">Template:Harvnb</ref> The walkway and bikeway were each Template:Convert<ref name="SA 1908a p. 78" /> or Template:Convert wide.<ref name="n138577995" /><ref name="n138527196">Template:Cite news</ref> The Manhattan-bound (eastern) upper-level roadway is Template:Convert wide,<ref name="The New York Times 1922" /> while the Brooklyn-bound (western) roadway is Template:Convert wide;<ref name="nyt-1931-06-19" /> both roadways narrow to Template:Convert at the anchorages.<ref name="nyt-1931-06-19" /><ref name="The New York Times 1922" /> At the Brooklyn end of the south pathway, a staircase leads to the intersection of Jay and High streets.<ref name="Newman 2001" /> Because the subway trains are on the outer edges of the deck, this causes torsional stresses every time a train crossed the bridge.<ref name="ascemetsection" /><ref name="Reier p. 55">Template:Harvnb</ref> As built, the bridge sagged by as much as Template:Convert when a train crossed it,<ref name="Reier p. 55" /><ref name="EC p. 127">Template:Harvnb</ref> and it took about 30 seconds for the deck to return to its normal position after a train had passed.<ref name="EC p. 129">Template:Harvnb</ref> The floor beams under the lower level are Template:Convert thick.<ref name="n129134966" />
The Manhattan Bridge was the first suspension bridge to employ Josef Melan's deflection theory for deck stiffening.<ref name="Reier p. 55" /><ref name="Gimsing Georgakis 2011 p. 1-PA12">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Xu Xia 2011 p. 13">Template:Cite book</ref> The theory posited that the weight of a suspension bridge's deck, and the downward forces created by vehicles on the bridge, provided stability to the bridge's deck; thus, such a bridge could use lighter trusses.<ref name="ascemetsection" /><ref name="Richman 2005 p. 116">Template:Cite book</ref> As such, the Manhattan Bridge was the first suspension bridge in the world to use a lightly-webbed weight-saving Warren truss.<ref name="ascemetsection" /> There are four stiffening trusses, two each flanking the tracks on the north and south sides of the bridge; these trusses measure Template:Convert<ref name="n138527196" /><ref name="SA 1908a p. 78" /> or Template:Convert deep.<ref name="Reier p. 55" /> Each of the trusses is directly beneath one of the main cables.<ref name="ascemetsection" /><ref name="n138527196" /> The centerlines of the inner trusses are Template:Convert apart from each other, while the centerline of each of the outer trusses is spaced Template:Convert from the centerlines of the inner trusses.<ref name="SA 1908a p. 78" /> The bottom of each truss is connected to the steel beams under the lower level, while the top of each truss supports the upper-level roadways. The trusses distribute the bridge's weight between each vertical suspender cable.<ref name="EC p. 278" />
TowersEdit
The Manhattan Bridge's suspension towers measure Template:Convert from the mean high water mark to the tops of the cables;<ref name="n138527196" /><ref name="ER-BR-SE p. 332">Template:Harvnb</ref> the ornamental finials atop each tower are Template:Convert above high water.<ref name="n138577995" />Template:Efn Each tower sits on a masonry pier that measures Template:Convert across and projects Template:Convert above mean high water.<ref name="ER-BR-SE p. 332" /> The tops of each pier taper to a steel pedestal measuring Template:Convert, from which rise the columns of each tower.<ref name="SA 1908a p. 77" /> The foundations of each tower, consisting of the underwater section of each pier and a caisson below it, descend Template:Convert below mean high water.<ref name="SA 1908a p. 77" /><ref name="n138603515">Template:Cite news</ref> The caissons measure Template:Convert across.<ref name="SA 1908a p. 77" /><ref name="ER-BR-SE p. 332" /> They have concrete walls and contained a working chamber divided into three compartments.<ref name="ER-BR-SE p. 332" />
Each tower is made of Template:Convert of steel, much heavier than the towers of similar suspension bridges.<ref name="SA 1908a p. 78" /> The towers are composed of four columns oriented transversely (perpendicularly) to the deck, one each flanking the north and south roadways.<ref name="n138585713" /><ref name="SA 1908a p. 77" /> The columns measure Template:Convert wide, as measured transversely. The length of each column, as measured laterally, tapers from Template:Convert at the pedestal to Template:Convert at the top.<ref name="SA 1908a p. 77" /> The columns are braced by diagonal steel beams.<ref name="n138585713" /><ref name="n138585751" /> A publication from 1904 wrote that the central parts of each tower were designed like a "great open arch", making it possible to rebuild either the western or eastern halves of the bridge without affecting the structural integrity of the other half.<ref name="Chapin Publishing Company 1904 p. 10-PA13" />
The towers contain little decorative detail, except for spherical finials.Template:Sfn Each suspension tower contains an iron and copper hood over the pedestrian or bike path on either side, as well as iron cornices just below the tops of the towers.Template:Sfn Saddles carry the main cables above the tops of each suspension tower.<ref name="n138585713" /><ref name="p572009250" /> Each saddle weighs Template:Convert.<ref name="n138599081" /> In contrast to the Williamsburg and Brooklyn bridges (where the saddles are placed on movable rollers), the saddles are fixed in place,<ref name="n138585713" /><ref name="p572009250" /> as the towers themselves were intended to flex slightly to accommodate the strains placed on each cable.<ref name="n138593749" /> If the bridge was loaded to full capacity, the tops of the towers could bend up to Template:Convert toward the center of the river.<ref name="SA 1908a p. 78" /> The steel beams also expanded by up to Template:Convert just sitting in the sun.<ref name="p572236963" />
CablesEdit
The Manhattan Bridge contains four main cables, which measure Template:Convert long. They descend from the tops of the suspension towers and help support the deck.Template:Sfn The cables weigh a combined Template:Convert and can carry Template:Convert including the weight of the cables themselves.<ref name="p572129360">Template:Cite news</ref> The cables measure either Template:Convert,<ref name="n138602393" /> Template:Convert,<ref name="Chapin Publishing Company 1904 p. 10-PA13" /><ref name="n138577995" /> or Template:Convert in diameter.<ref name="SA 1908a p. 78" /> Unlike the Williamsburg Bridge (but like other suspension bridges), the wires on the Manhattan Bridge's cables are galvanized to prevent rusting.<ref name="n138577995" /><ref name="n138527196" /> Each cable consists of 9,472 parallel wires,<ref name="n138577995" /><ref name="NYCL (2007) p. 87" /><ref name="SA 1908a p. 78" />Template:Efn which are grouped into 37 strands of 256 wires.<ref name="n138603646" /><ref name="n138602393" /><ref name="p572129360" /> The wires measure Template:Convert across.<ref name="n138602393" /><ref name="SA 1908a p. 78" /><ref name="p572129360" /> The cables themselves are capable of resisting loads of up to Template:Convert.<ref name="EC p. 130">Template:Harvnb</ref>
There are 1,400 vertical suspender cables, which hang from the main cables and hold up the deck.<ref name="n138608200" /> They measure about Template:Convert in diameter<ref name="n138541622">Template:Cite news</ref> and weigh a total of Template:Convert.<ref name="n138609079" /> Each suspender can withstand up to Template:Convert of pressure.<ref name="EC p. 278" /> There are cable bands at the top of each suspender cable (where they attach to the main cable);<ref name="EC p. 278" /><ref name="Reier p. 55" /> the suspenders are attached to the main cables using clamps.<ref name="EC p. 278" /> The lower parts of the suspender cables pass through the trusses.<ref name="EC p. 278" /><ref name="Reier p. 55" /> To reduce chafing on the lower parts of the suspender cables, workers installed wooden buffers between the suspender cables and the trusses after the bridge was completed.<ref name="Reier p. 55" />
AnchoragesEdit
The cables are attached to stone anchorages on each side, measuring Template:Convert long, Template:Convert wide, and Template:Convert tall.<ref name="SA 1908a p. 77" /><ref name="n138603515" /> Each anchorage weighs Template:Convert and is filled with Template:Convert of concrete and rubble masonry.<ref name="SA 1908a p. 77" /><ref name="n138603515" /><ref name="EC p. 130" /> Inside the anchorages are 36 anchor bars, nine for each cable. The ends of each strand are attached to the anchor bars, which in turn are attached to eyebars measuring Template:Convert long.<ref name="SA 1908a p. 77" /> There are 37 eyebars connecting each cable to the anchor bars, distributing the loads on the cables across a larger area.<ref name="EC p. 130" />
The anchorages were intentionally wider than the deck, providing space for pedestrians to rest;<ref name="Gray 2004" />Template:Sfn these pedestrian areas are Template:Convert above the ground.Template:Sfn The facade of each anchorage is made of concrete<ref name="SA 1908a p. 77" /> and is topped by a colonnade measuring Template:Convert long.<ref name="Reier p. 54">Template:Harvnb</ref> Each colonnade is divided vertically into five bays.<ref name="NYCL (2007) p. 86">Template:Harvnb</ref> The arches and colonnades are the only decorative elements of each anchorage.Template:Sfn Early proposals for the anchorages called for them to include auditoriums, but this proposal was never executed.Template:Sfn In a 1909 article for the Architectural Record, architectural critic Montgomery Schuyler described the anchorages as having "an aspect of Egyptian immobility",<ref name="Gray 2004" /><ref name="Schuyler 2016 p309">Template:Cite magazine</ref> and another author in 2006 similarly compared the anchorages to "vast, battered, Egyptian masses".<ref name="NYCL (2007) p. 87" />
At the base of the Manhattan anchorage is an arch measuring Template:Convert wide and 46 feet tall,<ref name="Ripley p. 204" /> through which Cherry Street passes.<ref name="Ripley p. 204" /><ref name="Reier p. 54" /> Water Street passes through a similar arch in Brooklyn.<ref name="Reier p. 54" /><ref name="NYCL (2007) p. 86" /> The intersection of Adams and Water streets had to be relocated to make way for the Brooklyn anchorage.<ref name="p571995180" /> The archway under the Brooklyn anchorage contains a Template:Convert public plaza.<ref name="Marvel a896">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The sides of the anchorages have large buttresses that slope upward.<ref name="NYCL (2007) p. 86" />
Approach plazasEdit
Carrère and Hastings designed approach plazas on both ends of the bridge. At the time of the bridge's opening, these plazas were meant to conceal views of the Manhattan Bridge from the streets on either end.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Manhattan plaza connects directly with Canal Street and the Bowery, while the Brooklyn end of the bridge continues as Flatbush Avenue (which in turn intersects several other roads at Prospect Park).<ref name="p97527021">Template:Cite news</ref> The city paid Carl Augustus Heber, Charles Cary Rumsey, and Daniel Chester French a combined $41,000 (Template:Inflation) to design sculptures around the approach plazas.<ref name="The New York Times 1961 k198" />
Manhattan plazaEdit
In Manhattan, the bridge terminates at a plaza originally bounded by the Bowery and Bayard, Division, Forsyth, and Canal streets.<ref name="nyt-1909-06-06" /> This plot covered Template:Convert.<ref name="Gray 1996" /><ref name="AAA 1912">Template:Cite magazine</ref> The arch and colonnade were completed within this plaza in 1915;<ref name="nycland" /> they surround an elliptical plaza facing northwest toward the Bowery.<ref name="AAA 1912" />
DesignEdit
The arch and colonnade are made of white, fine-grained Hallowell granite.<ref name="AAA 1912" /><ref name="ML p. 18">Template:Harvnb</ref> They are decorated with two groups of allegorical sculptures by Heber and a frieze called "Buffalo Hunt" by Rumsey.Template:Sfn<ref name="Gray 1996" /><ref name="nycland" /><ref name="ML pp. 19-20">Template:Harvnb</ref> The design of the arch and colonnade reference the fact that the Manhattan Bridge continues into Brooklyn as Flatbush Avenue, which runs south to the Atlantic Ocean. The arch thus signified the Manhattan Bridge's role as an ocean "gateway".Template:Sfn The plaza was influenced by the New York Improvement Plan of 1907, which sought to create plazas and other open spaces at large intersections; a massive circular plaza, connecting the Brooklyn and Manhattan bridges, was never built.Template:Sfn
The arch was based on Paris's Porte Saint-Denis.<ref name="Gray 1996" />Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn It is one of the city's three remaining triumphal arches, the others being the Washington Square Arch and the Soldiers' and Sailors' Arch.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The arch's opening measures Template:Convert high and Template:Convert wide.<ref name="AAA 1912" />Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On the northern side of the arch, the opening is flanked by carvings of classical ships, masks, shields, and oak leaves.<ref name="ML p. 18" /> The western pier contains the sculptural group Spirit of Commerce, depicting a winged woman flanked by two figures. The eastern pier contains Spirit of Industry, depicting the god Mercury flanked by two figures.<ref name="ML pp. 19-20" /> The arch's keystone contains a depiction of a bison. Above is the "Buffalo Hunt" frieze, which depicts Native Americans hunting animals while on horseback.<ref name="ML pp. 18-19">Template:Harvnb</ref>Template:Sfn The relief is topped by dentils and egg-and-dart ornamentation.<ref name="ML p. 19">Template:Harvnb</ref> The cornice of the arch contains modillions as well as six lion heads.<ref name="ML p. 19" />Template:Sfn The interior of the arch contains a coffered ceiling.Template:Sfn There are rosettes on the arch's soffit. The southern side of the arch, facing Brooklyn, is less ornately decorated but has rusticated stone blocks indicative of a Parisian or Florentine bank.<ref name="Gray 1996" /> On the southern side, there are decorations of carved lions at the bases of each pier.<ref name="ML p. 23">Template:Harvnb</ref>
The colonnade and plaza was modeled after the one surrounding St. Peter's Square in Vatican City.<ref name="Gray 1996" />Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="ML p. 23" /> The colonnade is elliptical and rises to Template:Convert. It is supported by six pairs of Template:Convert Tuscan columns on either side, with each pair of columns flanking rusticated piers inside the colonnade.Template:Sfn<ref name="AAA 1912" />Template:Sfn Above each column is a stone with a classical motif, such as a boat or a cuirass.<ref name="ML p. 23" /> There is an entablature above the columns, as well as a cornice and balustrade at the top of the colonnade.Template:Sfn<ref name="AAA 1912" />Template:Sfn The entablature contains roundels with floral motifs.<ref name="ML p. 23" /> The arch and colonnade were initially surrounded by granite retaining walls that contained decorative balustrades surrounding parkland on either side of the arch and colonnade.<ref name="Gray 1996" /><ref name="AAA 1912" /> Only a small segment of parkland remains at Canal and Forsyth streets, while the south side of the park became Confucius Plaza.<ref name="Gray 1996" />
Reception and modificationsEdit
American Architect and Architecture described the arch and colonnade in 1912 as "worthy of one of the principal gateways of a great modern city".<ref name="AAA 1912" /> The arch and colonnade were described as a "complete, dignified and monumental ensemble, worthy of one of the principal gateways of a great modern city" in a New York Times article.<ref name="Gray 1996" /> The Brooklyn Daily Eagle wrote: "The Manhattan Bridge will be not only something to get across the East River upon, but the sight of it will be a joy even to those who have no occasion to cross it."<ref name="ML p. 23" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> According to The Christian Science Monitor, the plaza's presence "has turned a section of the East Side, in one of its most squalid parts, into a veritable park where children can find on summer evenings a clean open place amid surroundings that will be in many ways the equal of any in New York".<ref name="p509557732" />
From the bridge's completion, the arch was heavily used by vehicular traffic.Template:Sfn When the second Madison Square Garden was being demolished in 1925, there was a proposal to relocate the arena's statue of Diana to the arch, but this did not happen.<ref name="nyt-1925-03-18">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Part of the colonnade's eastern arm was removed and replaced in the 1970s for the construction of the incomplete Second Avenue Subway.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Sfn The arch and colonnade were designated a New York City landmark on November 25, 1975.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> After many years of neglect and several attempts by traffic engineers to remove the structure (including a proposal for the unbuilt Lower Manhattan Expressway that would have required removing the arch), the arch and colonnade were repaired and restored in 2000.<ref name="nycland">Template:Cite nycland</ref><ref>Template:Cite AIA4</ref>
Brooklyn plazaEdit
The Brooklyn approach to the Manhattan Bridge also contained a terraced plaza with balustrades.<ref name="ML p. 23" /> The Brooklyn plaza was originally bounded by Sands, Bridge, Nassau, and Jay streets.<ref name="nyt-1909-06-06" /> French designed a pair of Template:Convert pylons named Brooklyn and Manhattan on the Brooklyn side of the Manhattan Bridge. These were installed in November 1916.Template:Sfn<ref name="The New York Times 1964" />Template:Sfn Each pylon measured Template:Convert high and rested on a base Template:Convert off the ground.<ref name="p575405714">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="p97806010">Template:Cite news</ref> The statues on each pylon represented French's impressions of life in each borough. The Brooklyn pylon depicted a young woman with a child and symbols of art and progress, while the Manhattan pylon depicted a seated, upright woman with symbols of art and prosperity. There were granite railings and walkways at the base of either pylon.<ref name="p575405714" />
A bas-relief memorializing former mayor William Jay Gaynor was dedicated at the bridge's Brooklyn plaza in 1927;<ref name="p1112926396">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> it was relocated in 1939 to the nearby Brooklyn Bridge Plaza.<ref name="p1247806077">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The pylons were relocated to the Brooklyn Museum in 1963.<ref name="The New York Times 1964" /> The pylons never constituted a true portal, even when they were in place. Following their removal, the Brooklyn approach did not contain a formal entrance.Template:Sfn
Exit listEdit
Access to the Manhattan Bridge is provided by a series of ramps on both the Manhattan and Brooklyn sides of the river. Template:NYinttop Template:NYCint Template:NYCint Template:NYCint Template:Jctbridge Template:NYCint Template:NYCint Template:NYCint Template:Jctbtm
Proposed I-478 designationEdit
As early as the 1940s, there had been plans for an expressway running across Manhattan, connecting with the bridge.<ref name="The New York Times 1944 r115">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> As part of the Interstate Highway System, the I-478 route number was proposed in 1958 for a branch of the Lower Manhattan Expressway running along the Manhattan Bridge.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> This highway would have run between I-78 (which would have split to another branch that used the Williamsburg Bridge) and I-278.<ref name="log-1970">Template:Cite book</ref> The state government solicited bids for a ramp connecting the expressway to the bridge's Manhattan end in 1965.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Lower Manhattan Expressway project was canceled in March 1971,<ref name=":0">Template:Cite news</ref> and the I-478 designation was applied to the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel.<ref name="2017log">Template:Cite book</ref> A fragment of the never-built expressway's onramp still exists above the Manhattan side of the bridge's center roadway.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Public transportationEdit
The bridge was originally intended to carry four Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT; later Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation or BMT) subway tracks on the lower level, as well as four trolley tracks on the upper level. The trolley tracks were carried around the Manhattan side's colonnade, while the subway tracks did not emerge from street level until south of the colonnade.<ref name="AAA 1912" />Template:Sfn
Streetcar and bus serviceEdit
Before the bridge opened, the BRT and the Coney Island and Brooklyn Rail Road (CI&B) both submitted bids to run streetcar service on the bridge,<ref name="p572167278">Template:Cite news</ref> as did the Triborough Railroad Company.<ref name="p572276748">Template:Cite news</ref> The Manhattan Bridge Three Cent Line received a permit to operate across the bridge in July 1910, despite opposition from the BRT and CI&B.<ref name="p129198462">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The Three Cent Line still had not begun operating by 1911, when another firm, the Manhattan Bridge Service Company, applied for a franchise to operate streetcars across the bridge.<ref name="n138514744">Template:Cite news</ref> After a subcommittee of the Board of Estimate recommended that the Brooklyn and North River Line receive a franchise,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> both the Three Cent Line and the Brooklyn and North River Line received franchises to operate across the bridge in mid-1912.<ref name="p129331396">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref>
Due to disputes over the franchises, the Three Cent Line did not run across the bridge until September 1912; it carried passengers between either of the bridge's terminals.<ref name="p129312013" /> The Brooklyn and North River Line began operating in December 1915,<ref name="p575588903">Template:Cite news</ref> and a bus route started running across the bridge after the Brooklyn and North River Railroad Company stopped operating streetcars across the bridge in October 1919.<ref name="n138663556">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The Three Cent Line trolley was discontinued in November 1929<ref name="p1111747012" /> and replaced by a bus.<ref name="n138722923">Template:Cite news</ref> A tour bus service, Culture Bus Loop II, began running across the bridge in 1973<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and was discontinued in 1982.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The B51 bus began running across the bridge in 1985 as part of a pilot program;<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> the route was discontinued in 2010.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Template:As of, no MTA Regional Bus Operations routes use the bridge.<ref>Template:Cite NYC bus map; Template:Cite NYC bus map</ref>
Subway serviceEdit
Four subway tracks are located on the lower deck of the bridge, two on each side of the lower roadway. The two tracks on the west side of the bridge (known as the south tracks) are used by the Q train at all times and the N train at all times except late nights, when it uses the Montague Street Tunnel. The tracks on the east side (known as the north tracks) are used by the D train at all times and the B train on weekdays.<ref>Template:NYCS const</ref> For both pairs of tracks, the western track carries southbound trains, and the eastern track carries northbound trains. On the Manhattan side, the south tracks connect to Canal Street and become the express tracks of the BMT Broadway Line, while the north tracks connect to the Chrystie Street Connection through Grand Street and become the express tracks on the IND Sixth Avenue Line. On the Brooklyn side, the two pairs merge under Flatbush Avenue to a large junction with the BMT Fourth Avenue Line and BMT Brighton Line at DeKalb Avenue.<ref name="tracks" />
In Brooklyn, the tracks have always connected to the BMT Fourth Avenue Line and the BMT Brighton Line; the junction between the lines was reconstructed in the 1950s.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> On the Manhattan side, the two north tracks originally connected to the BMT Broadway Line (where the south tracks now connect) while the two south tracks curved south to join the BMT Nassau Street Line towards Chambers Street.<ref name="tracks">Template:NYCS const</ref> As a result of the Chrystie Street Connection, which linked the north tracks to the Sixth Avenue Line upon completion in 1967,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> the Nassau Street connection was severed.<ref name="tracks" /> There were also unbuilt plans in the 1960s to have Long Island Rail Road trains use the subway tracks.<ref name="p915541855">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref>
Trackage historyEdit
The New York City Rapid Transit Commission recommended the construction of a subway line across the Manhattan Bridge in 1905,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and this line was approved in 1907 as part of the Nassau Street Loop.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Unsuccessful proposals for rapid transit across the bridge included a two-track line for the Interborough Rapid Transit Company<ref name="nyt-1908-05-27">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> and a two-track extension of a four-track BRT elevated line.<ref name="n138589723">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The New York City Public Service Commission requested permission to start constructing the subway tracks in March 1909.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Amid financial difficulties, and uncertainty over what subway lines would connect to the bridge in Brooklyn,<ref name="n138416455">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> the subway tracks were approved in May 1909.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The subway tracks on the Manhattan Bridge opened on June 22, 1915, along with the Fourth Avenue Line and the Sea Beach Line.<ref name="Brooklyn Daily Eagle 1915">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Initially, the north tracks carried trains to Midtown Manhattan via the Broadway Line, while the south tracks carried Sea Beach trains that terminated at Chambers Street.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
When the Nassau Street Loop was completed on May 29, 1931, service on the south tracks declined,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and traffic disproportionately used the north tracks.<ref name="p1322303107" /><ref name="EC p. 127" /> Trains from the Sea Beach, Brighton, and West End lines used the north tracks, while the south tracks were used only by short-turning trains from the West End and Culver lines.<ref name="p1322303107" /> Approximately three times as many trains were using the north tracks than the south tracks by 1953,<ref name="The New York Times 1953 n510" /> and 92 percent of subway trains used the north tracks by 1956.<ref name="EC p. 280">Template:Harvnb</ref> The Chrystie Street Connection opened on November 26, 1967, with a connection to the north tracks;<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> the south tracks were rerouted to the Broadway Line, while the Nassau Line was disconnected from the bridge.<ref name="tracks" />
Repairs to the tracks commenced in August 1983,<ref name="nyt-1983-08-04">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> requiring closures of some subway tracks for three months.<ref name="nyt-1983-11-15">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> Further repairs occurred in 1985.<ref name=nyt-1985-11-02>Template:Cite news</ref> The north tracks were closed for a longer-term repair in April 1986.<ref name="The New York Times 1986" /> The north tracks were reopened and the south tracks were closed simultaneously in December 1988.<ref name="p278125858" /> A projection for a reopening date was initially made for 1995.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> That year, the north tracks were closed during off-peak hours for six months. The south tracks finally reopened on July 22, 2001, whereby the north tracks were again closed.<ref name="p305613525">Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The south tracks was closed on weekends from April to November 2003. On February 22, 2004, the north tracks were reopened.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Tracks usedEdit
Template:Col-begin Template:Col-break 1967–1986
| Service | Time period/ Tracks used | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Weekdays | Weekends | Late nights | |||
| Template:Rint | north | no service | |||
| Template:Rint | north | no service | |||
| Template:Rint | north | ||||
| Template:Rint | south | no service | |||
| File:QB Train (1979-1985).svg/Template:Rint | south | no service | |||
.svg){kind=link}
1986–1988: North tracks closed
| Service | Time period/ Tracks used | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Weekdays | Weekends | Late nights | |||
| File:NYCS-bull-trans-B yellow.svg | south | no service | |||
| File:NYCS-bull-trans-D yellow.svg | south | ||||
| Template:Rint | no service | south | |||
| Template:Rint | south | no service | |||
1988–2001: South tracks closed
| Service | Time period/ Tracks used | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Weekdays | Weekends | Late nights | |
| Template:Rint | north | no service | |
| Template:Rint | north | ||
| File:NYCS-bull-trans-Q orange.svg | north | no service | |
2001–2005: North tracks closed
| Service | Time period/ Tracks used | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Weekdays | Weekends | Late nights | |
| Template:Rint | south | ||
| Template:Rint | south | no service | |
| Template:Rint | south | no service | |
2013–2014: Montague Street Tunnel closed<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
| Service | Time period/ Tracks used | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Weekdays | Weekends | Late nights | |
| Template:Rint | north | no service | |
| Template:Rint | north | ||
| Template:Rint | south | ||
| Template:Rint | south | ||
| Template:Rint | no service | south | no service |
2005–2013, 2014-present
| Service | Time period/ Tracks used | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Weekdays | Weekends | Late nights | |
| Template:Rint | north | no service | |
| Template:Rint | north | ||
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TollsEdit
Template:Further Initially, motorists had to pay a ten-cent toll, the same as the toll on the Brooklyn Bridge.<ref name="n138518564">Template:Cite news</ref> Shortly after the Manhattan Bridge opened, the city government conducted a study and found that it had no authority to charge tolls on the Manhattan and Queensboro bridges.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Tolls on the Manhattan Bridge, as well as the Queensboro, Williamsburg, and Brooklyn bridges, were abolished in July 1911 as part of a populist policy initiative headed by New York City mayor William Jay Gaynor.<ref>Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref>
In 1970, the federal government enacted the Clean Air Act, a series of federal air pollution regulations.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> As part of a plan by mayor John Lindsay and the federal Environmental Protection Agency,<ref name="NYT 1977 mayor yields2">Template:Cite news</ref> the city government considered implementing tolls on the four East River bridges, including the Manhattan Bridge, in the early 1970s.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The plan would have raised money for New York City's transit system<ref name="n1332959732">Template:Cite news</ref> and allowed the city to meet the Clean Air Act.<ref name="NYT 1977 mayor yields2" /> Abraham Beame, who became mayor in 1974, refused to implement the tolls,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and the United States Congress subsequently moved to forbid tolls on the East River bridges.<ref name="NYT 1977 mayor yields2" /> The United States Department of Transportation determined that the eastern upper roadway of the Manhattan Bridge was partially built with federal funds and, under federal law, could not be tolled.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
A plan for congestion pricing in New York City was approved in mid-2023,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> allowing the Metropolitan Transportation Authority to toll drivers who enter Manhattan south of 60th Street.<ref name="Nessen 2024 t852">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Congestion pricing was implemented in January 2025;<ref name="Anderson o055">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> all Manhattan-bound drivers pay a toll after using the bridge, which varies based on the time of day. Although no toll is charged upon exiting the congestion zone, all Brooklyn-bound drivers must pay a toll to access streets leading to the bridge.<ref name="Anderson l657">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ImpactEdit
When the Manhattan Bridge was being developed, the Brooklyn Standard Union described it as "of greater capacity than either the Williamsburg or Brooklyn bridges, yet lighter and more artistic".<ref name="n138527196" /> The Brooklyn Daily Eagle predicted that the bridge's completion would spur the redevelopment of residential areas in Downtown Brooklyn,<ref name="n138594420">Template:Cite news</ref> and the New-York Tribune said that warehouses would be developed in Lower Manhattan when the Manhattan Bridge opened.<ref name="n138415777">Template:Cite news</ref> The bridge's opening significantly reduced patronage on several ferry lines that had traveled between Lower Manhattan and Downtown Brooklyn.<ref name="nyt-1910-03-31">Template:Cite news</ref>
One local civic group predicted that large numbers of Jewish residents would move from Manhattan's Lower East Side to Brooklyn as a result of the bridge's opening.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> These included numerous Jewish families displaced by the bridge's construction.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In addition, numerous industrial and factory buildings were built around the bridge's Brooklyn approach in the 1910s.<ref name="p99864517">Template:Cite news</ref> Some of the land under the bridge's approaches was leased out;<ref>See, for example: Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> for example, a Chinese theater was built under the Manhattan approach in the 1940s,<ref name="p559635986">Template:Cite news; {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and a shopping mall was built there in the 1980s.<ref name="nyt-1983-07-31">Template:Cite news</ref> The area under the Brooklyn approach became known as Dumbo, short for "Down Under the Manhattan Bridge Overpass", in the late 20th century<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and became an upscale residential neighborhood by the 2010s.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In the two decades following the Manhattan Bridge's completion, few bridges with longer spans were constructed.<ref name="Gimsing Georgakis 2011 p. 1-PA12" /> Nonetheless, the use of the deflection theory enabled the construction of longer suspension bridges in the early 20th century.<ref name="ascemetsection" /> Two of the world's largest suspension bridge spans built in the 1930s, the Golden Gate Bridge and the George Washington Bridge, incorporated deflection theory into their designs.<ref name="Xu Xia 2011 p. 13" />
The bridge was the subject of American artist Edward Hopper's 1928 painting Manhattan Bridge Loop.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
GalleryEdit
- Manhattan bridge.jpg
Cross section of the bridge
- Manhattan Bridge Lower Level.jpg
Manhattan-bound lower level
- Manhattan Br Western columns jeh.JPG
One of the pedestrian walkways
- MB north bikeway jeh.JPG
Bikeway in Manhattan
- Manhattan Bridge- July 13, 2022.jpg
Brooklyn side of the walking path at sunset
See alsoEdit
- List of bridges and tunnels in New York City
- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Brooklyn
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan below 14th Street
ReferencesEdit
NotesEdit
CitationsEdit
SourcesEdit
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External linksEdit
- Template:HAER
- Manhattan Bridge at New York City DOT
- Manhattan Bridge Template:Webarchive at NYCsubway.org
Template:Navboxes Template:National Register of Historic Places listings in Brooklyn Template:Portal bar Template:Authority control