Migration Period

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The Migration Period (Template:Circa 300 to 600 AD), also known as the Barbarian Invasions, was a period in European history marked by large-scale migrations that saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire and subsequent settlement of its former territories by various tribes, and the establishment of post-Roman kingdoms there.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The term refers to the important role played by the migration, invasion, and settlement of various tribes, notably the Burgundians, Vandals, Goths, Alemanni, Alans, Huns, early Slavs, Pannonian Avars, Bulgars and Magyars within or into the territories of Europe as a whole and of the Western Roman Empire in particular. Historiography traditionally takes the period as beginning in AD 375 (possibly as early as 300) and ending in 568.<ref>Halsall, Guy. Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568. Cambridge University Press, 2007.</ref> Various factors contributed to this phenomenon of migration and invasion, and their role and significance are still widely discussed.

Historians differ as to the dates for the beginning and ending of the Migration Period. The beginning of the period is widely regarded as the invasion of Europe by the Huns from Asia in about 375, and the ending with the Lombards' conquest of Italy in 568,<ref>For example, Halsall, (2008), Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568</ref> but a more loosely set period extends from as early as 300 to as late as 800.<ref>"The Migration period (fourth to eighth century)", p.5 Migration Art, A.D. 300-800, 1995, Metropolitan Museum of Art, ed. Katharine Reynolds Brown, Template:ISBN, 9780870997501</ref> For example, in the 4th century the Empire settled a very large group of Goths as foederati within the Roman Balkans, and the Franks were settled south of the Rhine in Roman Gaul. In 406 a particularly large and unexpected crossing of the Rhine was made by a group of Vandals, Alans and Suebi. As central power broke down in the Western Roman Empire, the Roman military became more important but was dominated by men of barbarian origin.

There are contradictory opinions as to whether the fall of the Western Roman Empire was a result of an increase in migrations, or if both the breakdown of central power and the increased importance of non-Romans created additional internal factors. Migrations, and the use of non-Romans in the military, were known in the periods before and after, and the Eastern Roman Empire adapted and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. The "fall" of the Western Roman Empire, although it involved the establishment of competing barbarian kingdoms, was to some extent managed by the Eastern emperors.

The migrants comprised war bands or tribes of 10,000 to 20,000 people.<ref name="Heather2003">Template:Cite book</ref> Immigration was common throughout the period of the Roman Empire.<ref>Giovanni Milani-Santarpia, "Immigration Roman Empire", MariaMilani.com</ref> Over the course of 100 years,Template:When? the migrants numbered not more than 750,000 in total,Template:Citation needed compared to an average 40 million population of the Roman Empire at that time. The first migrations of peoples (Template:Langx) were made by Germanic tribes such as the Goths (including the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths), the Vandals, the Anglo-Saxons, the Lombards, the Suebi, the Frisii, the Jutes, the Burgundians, the Alemanni, the Sciri and the Franks; some of these groups were later pushed westward by the Huns, the Avars, the Slavs and the Bulgars.<ref>Bury, J. B., The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians, Norton Library, 1967.</ref> Later invasions Template:-- such as those carried out by the Vikings, the Normans, the Varangians, the Hungarians, the Arabs, the Turks, and the Mongols Template:-- also had significant effects on Roman and ex-Roman territory (especially in North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, Anatolia and Central and Eastern Europe).

ChronologyEdit

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Germanic tribes prior to migrationEdit

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Germanic peoples moved out of southern Scandinavia and northern Germany<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Wolfram Euler, Konrad Badenheuer; "Sprache und Herkunft der Germanen: Abriss des Protogermanischen vor der Ersten Lautverschiebung"; 2009; Template:ISBN</ref> to the adjacent lands between the Elbe and Oder after 1000 BC. The first wave moved westward and southward (pushing the resident Celts west to the Rhine around 200 BC), moving into southern Germany up to the Roman provinces of Gaul and Cisalpine Gaul by 100 BC, where they were stopped by Gaius Marius and later by Julius Caesar. It is this western group which was described by the Roman historian Tacitus (AD 56–117) and Julius Caesar (100–44 BC). A later wave of Germanic tribes migrated eastward and southward from Scandinavia, between 600 and 300 BC, to the opposite coast of the Baltic Sea, moving up the Vistula near the Carpathian Mountains. During Tacitus' era they included lesser-known tribes such as the Tencteri, Cherusci, Hermunduri and Chatti; however, a period of federation and intermarriage resulted in the familiar groups known as the Alemanni, Franks, Saxons, Frisians and Thuringians.<ref>Bury, Invasion, Ch. 1.</ref>

First waveEdit

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File:Bracteate from Funen, Denmark (DR BR42).jpg

A Migration Period Germanic gold bracteate depicting a bird, horse, and stylized human head with a Suebian knot

The first wave of invasions, between AD 300 and 500, is partly documented by Greek and Latin historians but is difficult to verify archaeologically. It puts Germanic peoples in control of most areas of what was then the Western Roman Empire.Template:Sfn

The Tervingi crossed the Danube into Roman territory in 376, in a migration fleeing the invading Huns. Some time later in Marcianopolis, the escort to their leader Fritigern was killed while meeting with Roman commander Lupicinus.Template:Sfn The Tervingi rebelled, and the Visigoths, a group derived either from the Tervingi or from a fusion of mainly Gothic groups, eventually invaded Italy and sacked Rome in 410 before settling in Gaul. Around 460, they founded the Visigothic Kingdom in Iberia. They were followed into Roman territory first by a confederation of Herulian, Rugian, and Scirian warriors under Odoacer, that deposed Romulus Augustulus in 476, and later by the Ostrogoths, led by Theodoric the Great, who settled in Italy.

In Gaul, the Franks (a fusion of western Germanic tribes whose leaders had been aligned with Rome since the 3rd century) entered Roman lands gradually during the 5th century, and after consolidating power under Childeric and his son Clovis's decisive victory over Syagrius in 486, established themselves as rulers of northern Roman Gaul. Fending off challenges from the Alemanni, Burgundians, and Visigoths, the Frankish kingdom became the nucleus of what would later become France and Germany.

The initial Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain occurred during the 5th century, when Roman control of Britain had come to an end.Template:Sfn The Burgundians settled in northwestern Italy, Switzerland and Eastern France in the 5th century.

Second waveEdit

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File:Migration of Early Slavs.png

Migration of early Slavs in Europe in the 6th–7th centuries

File:Old Great Bulgaria and migration of Bulgarians.png

Migration and settlement of the Bulgars during the 6th–7th centuries AD

File:Pair of radiate-head bow brooches, Slavic, 2 of 2, c. 600-650 AD, copper alloy, gilding - Morgan Library & Museum - New York City - DSC06620.jpg

Slavic fibula brooch made of copper dating back to the Migration Period, Template:Circa–650 AD

Between AD 500 and 700, Slavic tribes settled more areas of central Europe and pushed farther into southern and eastern Europe, gradually making the eastern half of Europe predominantly Slavic-speaking.<ref> Template:Cite book </ref> Additionally, Turkic tribes such as the Avars and - later - Ugric-speaking Magyars became involved in this second wave. In AD 567, the Avars and the Lombards destroyed much of the Gepid Kingdom. The Lombards, a Germanic people, settled in Italy with their Herulian, Suebian, Gepid, Thuringian, Bulgar, Sarmatian and Saxon allies in the 6th century.<ref name="DBI">Bertolini 1960, pp. 34–38.</ref><ref>Schutz 2002, p. 82</ref> They were later followed by the Bavarians and the Franks, who conquered and ruled most of the Italian peninsula.

The Bulgars, originally a nomadic group probably from Central Asia, occupied the Pontic steppe north of Caucasus from the 2nd century. Later, pushed by the Khazars, the majority of them migrated west and dominated Byzantine territories along the lower Danube in the 7th century. From that time the demographic picture of the Balkans changed permanently, becoming predominantly Slavic-speaking, while pockets of native people survived in the mountains of the Balkans.<ref>Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983), The Early Medieval Balkans, University of Michigan Press, Template:ISBN, p. 31.</ref><ref>The Miracles of Saint Demetrius</ref>

Croats settled in modern Croatia and Western Bosnia and Herzegovina while the Serbs settled in Southwestern Serbia, Eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern Montenegro.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=malcolm2>Chapter 2 in Noel Malcolm's Kosovo, a Short History, Macmillan, London, 1998, pp. 22-40</ref>Template:Sfn By the mid seventh century, Serb tribes were invading northern Albania.<ref name=malcolm2 /> By the ninth century, the central Balkans and the area of southern and central Albania became invaded and settled by Bulgars.<ref name=malcolm2 />

During the early Byzantine–Arab Wars, Arab armies attempted to invade southeast Europe via Asia Minor during the late 7th and early 8th centuries but were defeated at the siege of Constantinople (717–718) by the joint forces of Byzantium and the Bulgars. During the Khazar–Arab Wars, the Khazars stopped the Arab expansion into Europe across the Caucasus (7th and 8th centuries). At the same time, the so-called Moors (consisting of Arabs and Berbers) invaded Europe via Gibraltar (conquering Hispania from the Visigothic Kingdom in 711), before being halted by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in Gaul. These campaigns led to broadly demarcated frontiers between Christendom and Islam for the next millennium. The following centuries saw the Muslims successful in conquering most of Sicily from the Christians by 902.

The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin from around AD 895 and the subsequent Hungarian invasions of Europe and the Viking expansion from the late 8th century conventionally mark the last large migration movements of the period. Christian missionaries from the Roman West and Byzantium gradually converted the non-Islamic newcomers and integrated them into Christendom.

DiscussionsEdit

Barbarian identityEdit

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Analysis of barbarian identity and how it was created and expressed during the Barbarian Invasions has elicited discussion among scholars. Herwig Wolfram, a historian of the Goths,<ref>Wolfram, Thomas J. Dunlap, tr. History of the Goths (1979) 1988:5</ref> in discussing the equation of migratio gentium with {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, observes that Template:Ill introduced the equation in his 1778 history of the Germans. Wolfram observed that the significance of gens as a biological community was shifting, even during the early Middle Ages and that "to complicate matters, we have no way of devising a terminology that is not derived from the concept of nationhood created during the French Revolution".

The "primordialistic"<ref>Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford, 1966) pp. 6ff., coined the term to separate these thinkers from those who view ethnicity as a situational construct, the product of history, rather than a cause, influenced by a variety of political, economic and cultural factors.</ref> paradigm prevailed during the 19th century. Scholars, such as German linguist Johann Gottfried Herder, viewed tribes as coherent biological (racial) entities, using the term to refer to discrete ethnic groups.Template:Sfn He also believed that the Volk were an organic whole, with a core identity and spirit evident in art, literature and language. These characteristics were seen as intrinsic, unaffected by external influences, even conquest.Template:Sfn Language, in particular, was seen as the most important expression of ethnicity. They argued that groups sharing the same (or similar) language possessed a common identity and ancestry.<ref>That was influenced by the 'family tree' model ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) of linguistics in that relationships between related languages were seen to be the result of derivation from a common ancestor. The model still is very influential in linguistics</ref> This was the Romantic ideal that there once had been a single German, Celtic or Slavic people who originated from a common homeland and spoke a common tongue, helping to provide a conceptual framework for political movements of the 18th and 19th centuries such as Pan-Germanism and Pan-Slavism.Template:Sfn

From the 1960s, a reinterpretation of archaeological and historical evidence prompted scholars, such as Goffart and Todd, to propose new models for explaining the construction of barbarian identity. They maintained that no sense of shared identity was perceived by the Germani;<ref name="Halsall 2008 17">Template:Harvtxt</ref><ref>Template:Harvtxt There is no indication that the Germani possessed a feeling that they were a "separate people, nation, or group of tribes"</ref>Template:Sfn a similar theory having been proposed for Celtic and Slavic groups.<ref>For example, The Celtic World, Miranda Green (1996), p. 3 and The Making of the Slavs. Floring Curta (2001)</ref>

A theory states that the primordialist mode of thinking was encouraged by a prima facie interpretation of Graeco-Roman sources, which grouped together many tribes under such labels as Germanoi, Keltoi or Sclavenoi, thus encouraging their perception as distinct peoples. Modernists argue that the uniqueness perceived by specific groups was based on common political and economic interests rather than biological or racial distinctions. Indeed, on this basis, some schools of thought in recent scholarship urge that the concept of Germanic peoples be jettisoned altogether.<ref name ="Halsall 2008 24">Template:Harvtxt</ref><ref>Template:Harvtxt</ref>

The role of language in constructing and maintaining group identity can be ephemeral since large-scale language shifts occur commonly in history.<ref>Archaeology and Language: Correlating Archaeological and Linguistic Hypotheses. "The Eurasian Spread Zone and the Indo-European Dispersal." Johanna Nichols. p. 224</ref> Modernists propose the idea of "imagined communities"; the barbarian polities in late antiquity were social constructs rather than unchanging lines of blood kinship.Template:Sfn The process of forming tribal units was called "ethnogenesis", a term coined by Soviet scholar Yulian Bromley.<ref>Template:Harvtxt</ref> The Austrian school (led by Reinhard Wenskus) popularized this idea, which influenced medievalists such as Herwig Wolfram, Walter Pohl and Patrick J. Geary.<ref name="Halsall 2008 17" /> It argues that the stimulus for forming tribal polities was perpetuated by a small nucleus of people, known as the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("kernel of tradition"), who were a military or aristocratic elite. This core group formed a standard for larger units, gathering adherents by employing amalgamative metaphors such as kinship and aboriginal commonality and claiming that they perpetuated an ancient, divinely-sanctioned lineage.<ref name="harvtxt|Geary|2003|p = 77">Template:Harvtxt</ref>

The common, track-filled map of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} may illustrate such [a] course of events, but it misleads. Unfolded over long periods of time, the changes of position that took place were necessarily irregular ... (with) periods of emphatic discontinuity. For decades and possibly centuries, the tradition bearers idled, and the tradition itself hibernated. There was ample time for forgetfulness to do its work.Template:Sfn

ViewpointsEdit

Völkerwanderung is a German word, borrowed from German historiography, that refers to the early migrations of the Germanic peoples. In a broader sense it can mean the mass migration of whole tribes or ethnic groups.{{#if:Bell-Fialkoff, Andrew. The Role of Migration, p. 15|{{#if:|}}
— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries
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File:East-Hem 100ad.jpg

Location of Xiongnu and other steppe nations in 100 AD. Some historians believe that the Huns originated from the Xiongnu.

Rather than "invasion", German and Slavic scholars speak of "migration" (see Template:Langx, Template:Langx, Template:Langx and Template:Langx), aspiring to the idea of a dynamic and "wandering Indo-Germanic people".Template:Sfn

In contrast, the standard terms in French and Italian historiography translate to "barbarian invasions", or even "barbaric invasions" (Template:Langx, Template:Langx).

Historians have postulated several explanations for the appearance of "barbarians" on the Roman frontier: climate change, weather and crops, population pressure, a "primeval urge" to push into the Mediterranean, the construction of the Great Wall of China causing a "domino effect" of tribes being forced westward, leading to the Huns falling upon the Goths who, in turn, pushed other Germanic tribes before them.<ref>Wright, David Curtis (1997). "The Hsiung-Nu-Hun Equation Revisited". Eurasian Studies Yearbook. 69: 77–112.</ref> In general, French and Italian scholars have tended to view this as a catastrophic event, the destruction of a civilization and the beginning of a "Dark Age" that set Europe back a millennium.Template:Sfn In contrast, German and English historians have tended to see Roman–Barbarian interaction as the replacement of a "tired, effete and decadent Mediterranean civilization" with a "more virile, martial, Nordic one".Template:Sfn

File:Barbarian invasions from 3rd century.png

Barbarian invasions against the Roman Empire in the 3rd century

The scholar Guy Halsall has seen the barbarian movement as the result of the fall of the Roman Empire, not its cause.Template:Sfn Archaeological discoveries have confirmed that Germanic and Slavic tribes were settled agriculturalists who were probably merely "drawn into the politics of an empire already falling apart for quite a few other causes".Template:Sfn Goffart argues that the process of settlement was connected to hospitalitas, the Roman practice of quartering soldiers among the civilian population. The Romans, by granting land and the right to levy taxes to allied (Germanic) armies, hoped to reduce the financial burdens of the empire.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Crisis of the Third Century caused significant changes within the Roman Empire in both its western and its eastern portions.<ref>Template:Harvtxt "[T]he archaeological evidence of late fourth- and fifth-century barbarian graves between the Rhine and Loire suggests that a process of small-scale cultural and demographic change took place on both sides of the Roman frontier. Can we envisage Roman-Slavic relations in a similar way?"</ref> In particular, economic fragmentation removed many of the political, cultural and economic forces that had held the empire together.Template:Sfn

The rural population in Roman provinces became distanced from the metropolis, and there was little to differentiate them from other peasants across the Roman frontier. In addition, Rome increasingly used foreign mercenaries to defend itself. That "barbarisation" parallelled changes within Barbaricum. To this end, noted linguist Dennis Howard Green wrote, "the first centuries of our era witness not merely a progressive Romanisation of barbarian society, but also an undeniable barbarisation of the Roman world."Template:Sfn

For example, the Roman Empire played a vital role in building up barbarian groups along its frontier. Propped up with imperial support and gifts, the armies of allied barbarian chieftains served as buffers against other, hostile, barbarian groups. The disintegration of Roman economic power weakened groups that had come to depend on Roman gifts for the maintenance of their own power. The arrival of the Huns helped prompt many groups to invade the provinces for economic reasons.Template:Sfn

File:Europe and the Near East at 476 AD.png

Barbarian kingdoms and peoples after the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD

The nature of the barbarian takeover of former Roman provinces varied from region to region. For example, in Aquitaine, the provincial administration was largely self-reliant. Halsall has argued that local rulers simply "handed over" military rule to the Ostrogoths, acquiring the identity of the newcomers.Template:Sfn In Gaul, the collapse of imperial rule resulted in anarchy: the Franks and Alemanni were pulled into the ensuing "power vacuum",Template:Sfn resulting in conflict. In Hispania, local aristocrats maintained independent rule for some time, raising their own armies against the Vandals. Meanwhile, the Roman withdrawal from lowland England resulted in conflict between Saxons and the Brittonic chieftains (whose centres of power retreated westward as a result). The Eastern Roman Empire attempted to maintain control of the Balkan provinces despite a thinly-spread imperial army relying mainly on local militias and an extensive effort to refortify the Danubian limes. The ambitious fortification efforts collapsed, worsening the impoverished conditions of the local populace and resulting in colonization by Slavic warriors and their families.<ref>Template:Harvtxt</ref>

Halsall and Noble have argued that such changes stemmed from the breakdown in Roman political control, which exposed the weakness of local Roman rule. Instead of large-scale migrations, there were military takeovers by small groups of warriors and their families, who usually numbered only in the tens of thousands. The process involved active, conscious decision-making by Roman provincial populations.

The collapse of centralized control severely weakened the sense of Roman identity in the provinces, which may explain why the provinces then underwent dramatic cultural changes even though few barbarians settled in them.Template:Sfn Ultimately, the Germanic groups in the Western Roman Empire were accommodated without "dispossessing or overturning indigenous society", and they maintained a structured and hierarchical (but attenuated) form of Roman administration.Template:Sfn

Ironically, they lost their unique identity as a result of such an accommodation and were absorbed into Latinhood. In contrast, in the east, Slavic tribes maintained a more "spartan and egalitarian"<ref>Template:Harvtxt</ref> existence bound to the land "even in times when they took their part in plundering Roman provinces".<ref>Template:Harvtxt</ref> Their organizational models were not Roman, and their leaders were not normally dependent on Roman gold for success. Thus they arguably had a greater effect on their region than the Goths, the Franks or the Saxons had on theirs.<ref>Template:Harvtxt</ref>

EthnicityEdit

Based on the belief that particular types of artifacts, elements of personal adornment generally found in a funerary context, are thought to indicate the ethnicity of the person buried, the "Culture-History" school of archaeology assumed that archaeological cultures represent the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (homeland) of tribal polities named in historical sources.<ref>Template:Harvtxt</ref> As a consequence, the shifting extensions of material cultures were interpreted as the expansion of peoples.Template:Sfn

Influenced by constructionism, process-driven archaeologists rejected the culture-historical doctrineTemplate:Sfn and marginalized the discussion of ethnicity altogether and focused on the intragroup dynamics that generated such material remains. Moreover, they argued that adoption of new cultures could occur through trade or internal political developments rather than only military takeovers.