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Inselberg

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File:Pietra di bismantova castelnovo monti.jpg
Pietra di Bismantova in the Apennines, Italy

An inselberg or monadnock (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell) is an isolated rock hill, knob, ridge, or small mountain that rises abruptly from a gently sloping or virtually level surrounding plain. In Southern Africa, a similar formation of graniteTemplate:Citation needed is known as a koppie, an Afrikaans word ("little head") from the Dutch diminutive word kopje.<ref>Webster's New Explorer Dictionary of Word Origins (2004). Federal Street Press: New York.</ref> If the inselberg is dome-shaped and formed from granite or gneiss, it can also be called a bornhardt, though not all bornhardts are inselbergs. An inselberg results when a body of rock resistant to erosion, such as granite, occurring within a body of softer rocks, is exposed by differential erosion and lowering of the surrounding landscape.<ref name=Zeit1960/>

EtymologyEdit

InselbergEdit

The word inselberg is a loan word from German, and means "island mountain". The term was coined in 1900 by geologist Wilhelm Bornhardt (1864–1946) to describe the abundance of such features found in eastern Africa.<ref>Template:Cite bookTemplate:Page needed</ref> At that time, the term applied only to arid landscape features. However, it has since been used to describe a broader geography and range of rock features, leading to confusion about the precise definition of the term.

In a 1973 study examining the use of the term, one researcher found that the term had been used for features in savannah climates 40% of the time, arid or semi-arid climates 32% of the time, humid-subtropical and arctic 12% of the time, and 6% each in humid-tropical and Mediterranean climates. A 1972 paper defined inselbergs as "steep-sided isolated hills rising relatively abruptly above gently sloping ground". This definition includes such features as buttes; conical hills with rectilinear sides typically found in arid regions; regolith-covered concave-convex hills; rock crests over regolith slopes; rock domes with near vertical sides; tors (koppies) formed of large boulders but with solid rock cores. Thus, the terms monadnock and inselberg may not perfectly match,<ref name="gerrard">Gerrard, John (1988). Rocks and Landforms Routledge: Florence, Kentucky.</ref> though some authors have explicitly argued these terms are completely synonymous.<ref name="King53">Template:Cite journal</ref>

MonadnockEdit

Monadnock is derived from an Abenaki term for an isolated hill or a lone mountain that stands above the surrounding area, typically by surviving erosion. Geologists took the name from Mount Monadnock in southwestern New Hampshire.<ref name="Raymo">Raymo, Chet and Raymo, Maureen E. (1989) Written in Stone: A Geologic History of the Northeastern United States. Globe Pequot, Chester, Connecticut.</ref> It is thought to derive from either {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Translation) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Translation).<ref>"Vermont Soils with Names of American Indian Origin Template:Webarchive" United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved January 6, 2008.</ref> In this context, monadnock is used to describe a mountain that rises from an area of relatively flat and/or lower terrain. For instance, Mount Monadnock rises Template:Convert above its surrounding terrain and stands, at Template:Convert, nearly Template:Convert higher than any mountain peak within Template:Convert.<ref>Baldwin, Henry I. (1989). Monadnock Guide 4th edition. Concord, New Hampshire: Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests.</ref>

GeologyEdit

Geological and geographical patternsEdit

File:2008-06-28 08-18-02 Namibia Erongo Usakos.JPG
The Spitzkoppe of Namibia, a Template:Convert granite peak formed by early Cretaceous rifting and magmatism.

Inselbergs are common in eroded and weathered shields.<ref name=Nenonenetal2018>Template:Cite journal</ref> The presence of an inselberg typically indicates the existence of a nearby plateau or highland, or their remnants. This is especially the case for inselbergs composed of sedimentary rock, which will display the same stratigraphic units as this nearby plateau. Once exposed, the inselbergs are destroyed by marginal collapse of joint blocks and exfoliation sheets. This process leaves behind tors perched at their summits and, over time, a talus-bordered residual known as a castle koppie appears.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> By this association various inselberg fields in Africa and South America are assumed to be the vestiges of eroded etchplains.<ref name=Guillocheauetal2017/><ref name=GarciaHermelin>Template:Cite book</ref>

Clusters of inselbergs, called inselberg fields and inselberg plains, occur in various parts of the world, including Tanzania,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> the Anti-Atlas of Morocco,<ref name=Guillocheauetal2017>Template:Cite journal</ref> Northeast Brazil,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Namibia,<ref name=Namibiainselbergreport>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the interior of Angola,<ref name=InselbergAngola>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and the northern portions of Finland<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and Sweden.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn-ua

The classification of Anthony Young (1969) distinguishes six types of inselbergs; buttes, conical hills, convex-concave hills, rock crest over regolith-covered slope, rock dome (sugarloaf) and kopje or tor.<ref name=Young1969>Template:Cite book</ref>

The types of rock of which inselbergs are made include granite, gneiss and gabbro.Template:Efn-ua

Origin and developmentEdit

Template:Expand section Summarizing the understanding on the origin of inselbergs in 1974, geomorphologist Michael Thomas writes "Hypotheses for the development of inselbergs have been advanced, refuted and reiterated over a period of more than seventy years."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Volcanic or other processes may give rise to a body of rock resistant to erosion, inside a body of softer rock such as limestone, which is more susceptible to erosion. When the less resistant rock is eroded away to form a plain, the more resistant rock is left behind as an isolated mountain. The strength of the uneroded rock is often attributed to the tightness of its jointing.<ref>"A Dictionary of Ecology" (2004). Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved November 28, 2009</ref>Template:Efn-ua

Inselbergs can be reshaped by ice sheets much the same way as roches moutonnées. In northern Sweden, examples of this type of inselberg are called flyggbergs.<ref name="BennEvans">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

EcologyEdit

File:Kopje-1001.jpg
Lion atop a koppie in the Serengeti, northern Tanzania

The inselbergs of Eastern Africa tend to be a refuge for life in the Serengeti of Tanzania and in the Masai Mara of Kenya. Where the soil is too thin or hard to support tree life in large areas, soil trapped by inselbergs can be dense with trees while the surrounding land contains only short grass. Hollows in the rock surfaces provide catchments for rainwater. Many animals have adapted to the use of inselbergs, including the lion, the hyrax, and an abundance of bird and reptile life.

GalleryEdit

See alsoEdit

NotesEdit

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ReferencesEdit

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External linksEdit

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