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The Nabataeans or Nabateans (Template:IPAc-en; Nabataean Aramaic: Template:Script, Template:Transliteration, vocalized as Template:Transliteration)Template:Efn were an ancient Arab people<ref name= Bow>Template:Cite book Template:Cite book Template:Cite book Template:Cite book</ref> who inhabited northern Arabia and the southern Levant.<ref name= Bow/> Their settlements—most prominently the assumed capital city of Raqmu (present-day Petra, Jordan)<ref name= livius2>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>—gave the name Nabatene (Template:Langx) to the Arabian borderland that stretched from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. The Nabateans emerged as a distinct civilization and political entity between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC,<ref name= Taylor14>Template:Cite book</ref> with their kingdom centered around a loosely controlled trading network that brought considerable wealth and influence across the ancient world.
Described as fiercely independent by contemporary Greco-Roman accounts, the Nabataeans were annexed into the Roman Empire by Emperor Trajan in 106 AD. Nabataeans' individual culture, easily identified by their characteristic finely potted painted ceramics, was adopted into the larger Greco-Roman culture. They converted to Christianity during the Byzantine period. They have been described as one of the most gifted peoples of the ancient world<ref name= Tailor14>Taylor (2001), pp. centerfold, 14, quote: "The Nabataean Arabs, one of the most gifted peoples of the ancient world, are today known only for their hauntingly beautiful rock-carved capital — Petra."</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and one of the "most unjustly forgotten".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name= Taylor14/>
NameEdit
The name of the Nabataeans may be derived from the same root as Akkadian nabatu, to shine brightly.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
HistoryEdit
Hellenistic periodEdit
The Nabataeans were an Arab tribe who had come under significant Babylonian-Aramaean influence.Template:Sfn The first mention of the Nabataeans dates from 312/311 BC, when they were attacked at Sela or perhaps at Petra without success by Antigonus I's officer Athenaeus in the course of the Third War of the Diadochi; at that time Hieronymus of Cardia, a Seleucid officer, mentions the Nabataeans in a battle report. About 50 BC Greek historian Diodorus Siculus cites Hieronymus in his reportTemplate:Clarify and adds the following: "Just as the Seleucids had tried to subdue them, so the Romans made several attempts to get their hands on that lucrative trade."Template:Citation needed
They wrote a letter to Antigonus in Syriac letters, and Aramaic continued as the language of their coins and inscriptions when the tribe grew into a kingdom and profited by the decay of the Seleucids to extend its borders northward over the more fertile country east of the Jordan River. They occupied Hauran, and in about 85 BC their king Aretas III became lord of Damascus and Coele-Syria.
The Abgarids and Osroene in MesopotamiaEdit
The kingdom of Osroene in Upper Mesopotamia, with its capital at Edessa, was founded in 134 BCE in the aftermath of the collapse of the Seleucid empire by a Nabataean tribe, with the ruling dynasty, the Abgarids, coming from their numbers. It shifted between semi-autonomy and independence, then being a client state of the Parthian empire and the Roman empire, to being fully incorporated into the latter as a province in 214 CE.
Nabataean KingdomEdit
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Petra was rapidly built in the 1st century BC and developed a population estimated at 20,000.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Nabataeans were allies of the first Hasmoneans in their struggles against the Seleucid monarchs. They then became rivals of the Judaean dynasty and a chief element in the disorders that invited Pompey's intervention in Judea. According to popular historian Paul Johnson, many Nabataeans were forcefully converted to Judaism by Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Better source needed It was this king who, after putting down a local rebellion, invaded and occupied the Nabataean towns of Moab and Gilead and imposed a tribute. Obodas I knew that Alexander would attack, so was able to ambush Alexander's forces near Gaulane destroying the Judean army in 90 BC.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The Roman military was not very successful in their campaigns against the Nabataeans. In 62 BC, Marcus Aemilius Scaurus accepted a bribe of 300 talents to lift the siege of Petra, partly because of the difficult terrain and the fact that he had run out of supplies. Hyrcanus II, who was a friend of King Aretas, was despatched by Scaurus to the king to buy peace. In so obtaining peace, Aretas retained all his possessions, including Damascus, and became a Roman vassal.<ref>Josephus 1:61, p. 48.</ref>
In 32 BC, during King Malichus I's reign, Herod the Great, with the support of Cleopatra, started a war against Nabataea. The war began with Herod plundering Nabataea with a large cavalry force and occupying Dium. After this defeat, the Nabataean forces regrouped near Canatha in Syria but were attacked and routed. Cleopatra's general Athenion sent Canathans to the aid of the Nabataeans, and this force crushed Herod's army, which then fled to Ormiza. One year later, Herod's army overran Nabataea.<ref>Josephus 1:363–377, pp. 75–77.</ref>
After an earthquake in Judaea, the Nabateans rebelled and invaded Judea, but Herod at once crossed the Jordan River to Philadelphia (modern Amman), and both sides set up camp. The Nabataeans under Elthemus refused to give battle, so Herod forced the issue when he attacked their camp. A confused mass of Nabataeans gave battle but were defeated. Once they had retreated to their defences, Herod laid siege to the camp, and over time some of the defenders surrendered. The remaining Nabataean forces offered 500 talents for peace, but this was rejected. Lacking water, the Nabataeans were forced out of their camp and battled but were defeated.<ref>Josephus 1:377–391, pp. 78–79.</ref> King Aretas IV defeated Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, in a battle after he intended to divorce his daughter Phasaelis<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Roman periodEdit
An ally of the Roman Empire, the Nabataean kingdom flourished throughout the 1st century. Its power extended far into Arabia along the Red Sea to Yemen, and Petra was a cosmopolitan marketplace, though its commerce was diminished by the rise of the Eastern trade route from Myos Hormos to Coptos on the Nile. Under the Pax Romana, the Nabataeans lost their warlike and nomadic habits and became a sober, acquisitive, orderly people, wholly intent on trade and agriculture. The kingdom was a bulwark between Rome and the wild hordes of the desert except in the time of Trajan, who reduced Petra and converted the Nabataean client state into the Roman province of Arabia Petraea.<ref>Template:Cite EB1911</ref> There was a Nabataean community in Puteoli, in southern Italy, that reached its end around the establishment of the province.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Five Greek-Nabataean bilingual inscriptions, known as the Ruwafa inscriptions, date to AD 165–169, . They are ascribed to an auxiliary military unit drawn from the Roman-allied Thamud tribe and were built to describe the temple they were inscribed in and to recognize the authority of the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
By the 3rd century the Nabataeans had stopped writing in Aramaic and begun writing in Greek. By the 5th century they had converted to Christianity.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Their lands were divided between the new Qahtanite Arab tribal kingdoms of the Byzantine vassals, the Ghassanid Arabs, and the Himyarite vassals, the Kingdom of Kinda in North Arabia.
CultureEdit
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Many examples of graffiti and inscriptions—largely of names and greetings—document the area of Nabataean culture, which extended as far north as the north end of the Dead Sea, and testify to widespread literacy; but except for a few letters<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> no Nabataean literature has survived, nor was any noted in antiquity.<ref>The carbonized Petra papyri, mostly economic documents in Greek, date to the 6th century: Glen L. Peterman, "Discovery of Papyri in Petra", The Biblical Archaeologist 57 1 (March 1994), pp. 55–57.</ref><ref>P. M. Bikai (1997) "The Petra Papyri", Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan.</ref><ref>Marjo Lehtinen (December 2002) "Petra Papyri", Near Eastern Archaeology Vol.65 No. 4 pp. 277–278.</ref> Onomastic analysis has suggested<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> that Nabataean culture may have had multiple influences. Classical references to the Nabataeans begin with Diodorus Siculus. They suggest that the Nabataeans' trade routes and the origins of their goods were regarded as trade secrets, and disguised in tales that should have strained outsiders' credulity.<ref name= Eadie>J. W. Eadie, J. P. Oleson (1986) "The Water-Supply Systems of Nabatean and Roman Ḥumayma", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research.</ref>
Diodorus Siculus (book II) describes them as a strong tribe of some 10,000 warriors, preeminent among the nomads of Arabia, eschewing agriculture, fixed houses, and the use of wine, but adding to pastoral pursuits a profitable trade with the seaports in frankincense, myrrh and spices from Arabia Felix, as well as a trade with Egypt in bitumen from the Dead Sea. Their arid country was their best safeguard, for the bottle-shaped cisterns for rain-water which they excavated in the rocky or clay-rich soil were carefully concealed from invaders.<ref name= Eadie/>
Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq's Kitab al-Tabikh, the earliest known Arabic cookbook, contains a recipe for fermented Nabatean water bread (Template:Transliteration). The yeast-leavened bread is made with a high quality wheat flour called samidh that is finely milled and free of bran and is baked in a tandoor.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
WomenEdit
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Based on coins, inscriptions and non-Nabatean contemporary sources, Nabataean women seem to have had many legal rights. Inscriptions on tombs demonstrate the equality of property rights between man and woman and women's rights in matters of inheritance and also their ability to make decisions about their own property.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> That set the Nabateans apart from the attitudes on a woman's role in society by their neighbours in the region. Women also participated in religious activities, and had a right to visit the temples and make sacrifices.
Archeological evidence strongly suggest that the Nabataean women had a role in the social and political life by the 1st century AD, which is shown by the fact that Nabatean queens were depicted on coins, both independently and together with their spouse the king. The assumption to be made from this were that they ruled together and that the Nabatean queens and other female members were given or already had political importance and status.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It is likely other Nabatean women benefited from this by extension.<ref name= Bbt>Template:Cite book</ref>
Though Nabatean culture seems to have favored male succession rather than female or equal succession, it seems plausible that like their neighbouring Ptolemaic dynasty and the Seleucids, marrying a female member of the Nabatean royal family reinforced a ruler's position or one whose claim to the throne was not as strong as his wife's.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Nabatean royal house, like the Ptolemaic and Seleucids, later adopted sibling marriage.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
FashionEdit
Not much is known for certain about the fashions of ancient Nabateans and before the Hellenization and Romanization of the region, but based on extant clothes and textiles found in graves and tombs on Nabatean territory, the clothing worn by the Nabateans during the 1st and 2nd century were not unlike their neighbour Judaeans.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It is unknown what the Nabateans wore in more ancient times since their art before this period was non-figurative. Among the most common colors were yellow made from saffron and a bright red produced from madder.<ref name= Bbt/> Blue textiles were also found.<ref name= Bbt/>
Nabatean men wore a tunic and a mantle both made of wool. The tunic was a Roman style (sleeveless) and with the mantle cut in a Greek style. This reflects a popular style rather than an ethnic style exclusive to the Nabateans.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Nabataean women wore long tunics along with scarves and mantles. These scarves were loosely woven and sported fringes at the bottom.
The upper class of Nabataean society, what can be seen on coins, show an even stronger Greek and Roman influence. The kings are depicted clean-shaven with long curled hair while queens are depicted wearing headcoverings with curled hair and long tunics and high-necked garments. Purple cloth seems to have been associated with the king based on Strabo's account of Nabatean men going outside "without tunics girdles about their loins, and with slippers on their feet—even the kings, though in their case the colour is purple."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
ReligionEdit
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The major gods worshiped at Petra were notably Dushara and Al-‘Uzzá.<ref name= Teixidor2015>Template:Cite book</ref> Other gods worshipped in Nabatea during thisTemplate:Which period were Isis, Balshamin and Obodat<ref name= Alp/>
The extent of Nabataean trade resulted in cross-cultural influences that reached as far as the Red Sea coast of southern Arabia.<ref name= Teixidor2015/>Template:Clarify
Main god: DusharaEdit
Dushara was the supreme deity of the Nabataean Arabs and was the official god of the Nabataean Kingdom who enjoyed special royal patronage.<ref name= Teixidor2015/> His official position is reflected in multiple inscriptions that render him as "The god of our lord" (the king).<ref name= Taylor124>Taylor (2001), pp. 124–151.</ref>
The name Dushara is from the Arabic "Dhu ash-Shara": which simply means "the one of Shara", a mountain range southeast of Petra also known as Mount Seir.<ref name= Teixidor2015/> Therefore, from a Nabataean perspective, Dhushara was probably associated with the heavens. However, one theory which connects Dushara with the forest gives a different idea of the god.<ref name= Sánchez2015>Template:Cite book</ref> The eagle was one of the symbols of Dushara.<ref name= Guides2016>Template:Cite book</ref> It was widely used in Hegra as a source of protection for the tombs against thievery.<ref>Mahdi al-Zoubi: Nabataean Practices for Tombs Protection - p. 3.</ref>
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Nabataean inscriptions from Hegra suggest that Dushara was linked either with the sun or with Mercury with which Ruda, another Arabian god, was identified.<ref name= Taylor124/>
When the Romans annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, Dushara still had an important role despite losing his former royal privilege. The greatest testimony to the status of the god after the fall of the Nabataean Kingdom was during the 1,000th anniversary of the founding of Rome where Dushara was celebrated in Bostra by striking coins in his name, Actia Dusaria (linking the god with Augustus victory at Actium). He was venerated in his Arabian name with a Greek fashion in the reign of an Arabian emperor of Rome, Philip.<ref name= Taylor124/>
Female deities (al-Uzza etc.)Edit
"His [Dushara's] throne" was frequently mentioned in inscriptions; certain interpretations of the text consider it as a reference for Dushara's wife, goddess Harisha. She was probably a solar deity.<ref name= Sánchez2015/>
Dushara's consort at Petra is considered to have been al-Uzza, and the goddess has been associated with the Temple of Winged Lions on the basis that if the divine couple of Petra was Dushara and al-Uzza and the Qasr al-Bint temple was dedicated to Dushara, then the other major temple must have been al-Uzza's.<ref name= Alp>Template:Cite book</ref> This is just a theory however, based on conjecture, and it can only be said that the temple is likely dedicated to the supreme goddess figure of the Nabateans, but the identity of this goddess is uncertain. Excavated from The Temple of the Winged Lions was the "Eye Baetyl" or "Eye-Idol".
Numerous Nabatean bas-relief busts of the northern Syrian goddess Atargatis were identified by Nelson Glueck at Khirbet et-Tannûr. Atargatis was amalgamated into the worship of Al-‘Uzzá.<ref name= Taylor124/>
WorshipEdit
Sacrifices of animals were common, and Porphyry's De Abstenentia, written in the 3rd century, states that in Dūmah a boy was sacrificed annually and was buried underneath an altar. Some scholars have extrapolated this practice to the rest of the Nabataeans, but this view is contested due to the lack of evidence.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The Nabataeans used to represent their gods as featureless pillars or blocks. Their most common monuments to the gods, commonly known as "god blocks", involved cutting away the whole top of a hill or cliff face so as to leave only a block behind. However, over time the Nabataeans were influenced by Greece and Rome, and their gods became anthropomorphic and were represented with human features.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
LanguageEdit
Historians such as Irfan Shahîd,<ref>Shahid, Irfan. Rome and the Arabs. Dumbarton Oaks, p. 9.</ref> Warwick Ball,<ref>Ball, Warwivk. '"Rome in the East. Routledge, p. 65.</ref> Robert G. Hoyland,<ref>Hoyland, Robert G. "Language and Identity: Arabic and Aramaic". Scripta Classica Israelica vol. XXIII 2004, p. 185.</ref> Michael C. A. Macdonald,<ref>Macdonald, Michael C. A. "Arabs, Arabias and Arabic before Late Antiquity". Topoi. Orient-Occident 2009 16-1, p. 309.</ref> and others<ref>"The Nabateans in the Early Hellenistic Period: The Testimony of Posidippus of Pella". Topoi. Orient-Occident 2006 14-1, pp. 48.</ref> believe Nabataeans spoke Arabic as their native language. John F. Healy states "Nabataeans normally spoke a form of Arabic, while, like the Persians etc., they used Aramaic for formal purposes and especially for inscriptions."<ref>Healey, John F. 'Were the Nabataeans Arabs?' Aram 1 (1989), 43.</ref> Proper names on their inscriptions suggest that they were ethnically Arabs who had come under Aramaic influence, and the Nabataeans had already some trace of Aramaic culture when they first appear in history. Some of the authors of Safaitic inscriptions identify themselves as Nabataeans.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The Nabataeans spoke an Arabic dialect but for their inscriptions used a form of Aramaic that was heavily influenced by Arabic forms and words.<ref name= Healey1990>Template:Cite book</ref> When communicating with other Middle Eastern peoples, they, like their neighbors, used Aramaic, the region's lingua franca.<ref name= Taylor124/> Therefore, Aramaic was used for commercial and official purposes across the Nabataean political sphere.<ref name= Maalouf>Template:Cite book</ref>
ScriptEdit
The Nabataean alphabet developed out of the Aramaic alphabet, but it used a distinctive cursive script from which the Arabic alphabet emerged. There are different opinions concerning the development of the Arabic script. J. Starcky considers the Lakhmids' Syriac form script as a probable candidate.<ref name= Arabic44>Nabataean to Arabic: Calligraphy and script development among the pre-Islamic Arabs by John F. Healey p. 44.</ref> However, John F. Healey states "The Nabataean origin of the Arabic script is now almost universally accepted".<ref name= Arabic44/> In surviving Nabataean documents, Aramaic legal terms are followed by their equivalents in Arabic. That could suggest that the Nabataeans used Arabic in their legal proceedings but recorded them in Aramaic.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name= Woodard2008>Template:Cite book</ref>
Archeological sitesEdit
- Jordan
- Raqmu (Petra) and Little Petra/Siq al-Barid
- Khirbet edh-Dharih, settlement and sanctuary
- Khirbet et-Tannur, temple
- Sela (Edom), mountaintop site
- Wadi Rum, temple
- Syria
- Northwest Saudi Arabia
- Dumah (Dumat al-Jandal/Jawf), trade hub at southeastern end of Wadi Sirhan corridor
- Hegra (Mada'in Saleh)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Negev Desert, Israel
- Incense Route – Desert Cities in the Negev:
- Obodas (Avdat), city with Nabataean temple
- Elusa (Haluza), town, road station
- Mampshis (Mamshit), road station
- Shivta, Byzantine agricultural town with contested Nabataean, Roman precursor
- South Sinai, Egypt
- Dahab: excavated Nabataean trading port
Outside the Middle EastEdit
- A now submerged Nabataean temple in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli), Italy
Architects and stonemasonsEdit
- Apollodorus of Damascus - Greek-Nabataean architect and engineer from Damascus, Roman Syria, who flourished during the 2nd century AD. His massive architectural output gained him immense popularity during his time. He is one of the few architects whose name survives from antiquity, and is credited with introducing several Eastern innovations to the Roman Imperial style, such as making the dome a standard.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Wahb'allahi - a first century stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Wahb'allahi was the brother of the stonemason 'Abdharetat and the father of 'Abd'obodat. He is named in an inscription as the responsible stonemason on the oldest datable grave in Hegra in the ninth year of the Nabataean king Aretas IV (1 BC-AD).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
- 'Abd'obodat son of Wahballahi - a 1st-century Nabatean Stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> He is named by inscriptions on five of the grave facades typical of Hegra as the executing craftsman. On the basis of the inscriptions, four of the facades can be dated to the reigns of kings Aretas IV and Malichus II. 'Abd'obodat was evidently a successful craftsman. He succeeded his father Wahb'allahi and his uncle 'Abdharetat in at least one workshop in the second generation of Nabatean architects. 'Abd'obodat is considered to be the main representative of one of the two main schools of the Nabataean stonemasons, to which his father, his uncle belonged. Two more grave facades are assigned to the school on the basis of stylistic investigations; 'Abd'obodat is probably to be regarded as the stonemason who carried out the work.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- 'Aftah - a Nabatean stonemason who became prominent in the beginning of the third decade of the first century.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> 'Aftah is attested in inscriptions on eight of the grave facades in Hegra and one grave as the executing stonemason. The facades are dated to the late reign of King Aretas IV. On one of the facades he worked with Halaf'allahi, on another with Wahbu and Huru. A tenth facade without an inscription was attributed to the 'Aftah sculpture school due to technical and stylistic similarities. He is the main representative of one of the two stonemason schools in the city of Hegra.
- Halaf'allahi - Nabatean stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra in the first century. Halaf'allahi is named in inscriptions on two graves in Hegra as the responsible stonemason in the reign of the Nabataean king Aretas IV. The first grave, which can be dated to the year 26-27 AD, was created together with the stonemason 'Aftah. He is therefore assigned to the workshop of the 'Aftah. Nabataean architects and sculptors were in reality contractors, who negotiated the costs of specific tomb types and their decorations. Tombs were therefore executed based on the desires and financial abilities of their future owners. The activities of Halaf'allahi offer an excellent example of this, as he had been commissioned with the execution of a simple tomb for a person who apparently belonged to the lower middle class. However, he was also in charge of completing a more sophisticated tomb for one of the local military officials.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Gallery: architectureEdit
- Petra Al Khazneh 1975.jpg
Petra, the Treasury
- Details of Al Khazneh.jpg
Petra, the Treasury; upper part of facade
- Petra Jordan BW 37.JPG
Petra, the Monastery
- Petra Renaissance Tomb 1885.jpg
Petra, the Renaissance Tomb
- Petra Palace Tomb 2041.jpg
Petra, the Palace Tomb
- Petra Great Temple 2380.jpg
Petra, the Great Temple
- Little Petra - Flickr - GregTheBusker (2).jpg
Little Petra, temple or chapel over 3-chamber rock-cut dwelling<ref>Art Destination Jordan: Petra: Siq al-Barid, "Temple above cave rooms" at Universes in Universe. Retrieved 11 Apr 2025.</ref>
- Facade Siq al-Barid Jordan1501.jpg
Little Petra, tomb facade 846
- Qasr al-Bint, Hegra (Madain Salih), Saudi Arabia, 1st cent. CE (2).jpg
Hegra (Madain Salih), tomb in Qasr al-Bint necropolis
See alsoEdit
- List of Nabataean kings
- Azd, ancient Arab tribe
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
BibliographyEdit
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- Healey, John F., The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus (Leiden, Brill, 2001) (Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, 136).
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- "Nabat", Encyclopedia of Islam, Volume VII.
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External linksEdit
- Hecht Museum - Catalogues | The Nabateans in the Negev
- Hecht Museum - Exhibitions | The Nabateans in the Negev
- The Bulletin of Nabataean Studies online—links on Petra and the Nabataeans
- NABATÆANS in the Jewish Encyclopedia
- Cincinnati Art Museum—the only collection of ancient Nabataean art outside of Jordan
- Archaeological Studies—Ancient Desert Agriculture Systems Revived (ADASR)
- Petra: Lost City of Stone Exhibition—Canadian Museum of Civilization
- "Solving the Enigma of Petra and the Nabataeans", Biblical Archaeology Review
- Nabataeans a nation civilization—Petra Crown
- Quellen zur Geschichte der Nabatäer—Ursula Hackl, Hanna Jenni, and Christoph Schneider