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Newar language

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Newar (Template:IPAc-en; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Translit)<ref>Template:Cite OED</ref> is a Sino-Tibetan language spoken by the Newar people, the indigenous inhabitants of Nepal Mandala, which consists of the Kathmandu Valley and surrounding regions in Nepal. The language is known officially in Nepal as Nepal Bhasa, a name that has been historically used for the language.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":6" /> The term "Newari" is also used to refer to the language, although the Indic -i suffix is considered inappropriate by some Newar speakers.Template:Efn

The language served as the official language of Nepal during the Malla dynasty since the 14th century till the end of dynasty in 1769 during which the language was referred as "Nepal Bhasa", a term which literally means "Nepalese Language".Template:Sfn<ref name=":12">Template:Cite book</ref> However, the language is not the same as Nepali, an Indo-Aryan language and the current official language of Nepal, which only got the name Nepali in the 1930s.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Literature in Newar is one of the oldest in Nepal, dating back to at least 600 years ago.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

From the start of the Rana dynasty in the 1840s until democratisation, Newar suffered from official suppression.<ref name=tumbahang2010>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> From 1952 to 1991, the percentage of Newar speakers in the Kathmandu Valley dropped from 75% to 44%<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and today Newar culture and language are under threat.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The language has been listed as "Definitely endangered" by UNESCO.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

On 6 May 2024, Newar, along with Tamang and Nepali was declared as the official language of Bagmati Province.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Similarly, Newar is given official status in several city governments of Nepal including Kathmandu.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

NameEdit

File:Use of Nepal Bhasa in an inscription from 1706.jpg
A line from an inscription dated 1706 using the term "Nepāla Bhāṣā" in Pracalit script to refer to the language.

The official and historical name of the language, Nepal Bhasa, which literally means Nepal Language, originates from Nepal.<ref name="dambar">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}उनले भनेका थिए– ‘तिब्बतको दक्षिणमा ‘नेपाल’ छ, त्यसका बासिन्दालाई ‘नेवार’ भनिन्छ ।’ यो सन्दर्भलाई पत्याउने हो भने त्यतिखेर ‘नेपाल’ काठमाडौं वरिपरि मात्र भएको देशको नाम थियो र अहिले ‘नेपाली’ भनिए जस्तो त्यो ‘नेपाल’ देशका बासिन्दालाई ‘नेवार’ भनिन्थ्यो । उनीहरूले बोल्ने भाषालाई ‘नेपाल भाषा’ भनिन्थ्यो । यसको गहिरो अर्थ छ– ‘नेवार’ कुनै जात, जाति वा नश्ल समुुदाय हैन, एक ऐतिहासिक राष्ट्र वा राष्ट्रियता हो ।</ref><ref name="kashinath1">Template:Cite book</ref> Historically, Nepal was only used to refer to the Kathmandu Valley and its surroundings, where the language was native to.Template:Efn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn<ref name="celestialadvice">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}When we were on the top of Chandragiri Mountain, I asked them- "Which one is Nepal?" They helped me to recognize Bhadgaun (Now Bhaktapur), Patan and Kathmandu. My heart, at that time, felt to be the King of those Three Cities.....also to see the Kathmandu Valley (the then Nepal).....Not to be recognized and arrested by the King of Nepal (Kathmandu) I was using Sayakhu( Woolen Blanket)....We may not conquer Nepal (Kathmandu) without sufficient human resource like in Kurukshetra...</ref> A larger region surrounding the valley is known as Nepal Mandala. Therefore, the language spoken in Nepal Mandala became known as Nepal Bhasa.<ref name="kashinath1" />

The name "Nepal Bhasa" is ubiquitous in sources from the Malla dynasty to refer to the language.Template:Sfn The earliest occurrences of the name Nepālabhāṣā (Devanāgarī: नेपालभाषा) or Nepālavāc (Devanāgarī: नेपालवाच) used to refer to the language, can be found in the manuscripts of a commentary to the Nāradasaṃhitā, dated 1380, and a commentary to the Amarkośa, dated 1386.Template:Sfn<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} Page 1.</ref> Some inscriptions from the Malla Dynasty refer to the language as deśabhāṣā (Pracalit Script: Template:Script , Template:Literal translation) and svadeśabhāṣā (Pracalit Script: Template:Script, Template:Literal translation).Template:Sfn Similarly, Father Cassiano da Macerata, a Capuchin missionary who visited Nepal in the 1740s referred to the language as Nepalese.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The term "Newari" as a name for the language was coined by Brian Hodgson in 1847 and since then used by most western scholars.Template:Sfn The term "Newari" is considered by many Newars to be inappropriate as it is the Sanskritisation of "Newar".Template:Efn "Newar" is generally believed to be related to the word "Nepal", possibly derived by the replacement of the 'la' sound with a 'ra' sound, a common practice in historical documents from Nepal.Template:Sfn Historically, the term "Newar" itself was rarely used, only finding use in the travelogue of some of the Capuchin missionaries who visited Nepal during the Malla dynasty.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite news</ref> Only two sources from the Malla dynasty use the term "Newar" to refer to the language or its script; the multilingual stone inscription of Pratap Malla uses "nevāra ākhara" ("newar alphabet") to refer to the Pracalit script and another stone inscription set up by Pratap Malla in 1652 uses the term nevārabhāṣā ("newar language") to refer to the language.<ref name=":5" />

In the 1920s, the language known as Khas Kura,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Gorkhali or Parbatiya<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> was renamed to Nepali.<ref name="Lienhard, Siegfried 1992 Page 3">Lienhard, Siegfried (1992). Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. Template:ISBN. Page 3.</ref><ref name="rajendramaharjan2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}आजभन्दा करिब नौ दशकअघि मात्रै देशको नाम ‘नेपाल’ का रूपमा स्विकारिएको हो भने, पहिले खस–पर्वते–गोर्खाली भनिने भाषालाई ‘नेपाली’ नामकरण गरिएको हो ।</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the former national anthem entitled "Shreeman Gambhir" was changed to Nepali in 1951.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Gorkha Language Publishing Committee), a government institution established in 1913 (B.S. 1970) for advancement of Gorkha Bhasa, renamed itself as Nepali Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Nepali Language Publishing Committee) in 1933 (B.S. 1990), which is currently known as Sajha Prakashan.<ref name="sajhaprakashan">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

On 7 September 1995, the cabinet of ministers decided to use "Nepala Bhasa" instead of "Newari".<ref name="kapalilangname">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> On 13 November 1998, the Minister of Information and Communication issued another directive to use the name Nepal Bhasa instead of Newari.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> However, the Central Bureau of Statistics has not been doing so.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

A colloquial term is Newa Bhaay (Devanāgarī: नेवा: भाय्, IAST: Nevāḥ Bhāy) is also used.

Geographic distributionEdit

File:Classical Newar Stone Inscription from Bhaktapur.jpg
A stone inscription in Classical Newar at Bhaktapur.
File:Nepal lipi inscription 1952.jpg
Copper plate inscription at Swayambhunath, dated Nepal Sambat 1072 (1952 AD)

Newar is spoken by over a million people in Nepal according to the 2001 census.

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With an increase in emigration, various bodies and societies of Newar-speaking people have emerged in countries such as the US, the UK, Australia, and Japan.

Official statusEdit

NepalEdit

Newar was Nepal Mandala's (then only known as Nepal) administrative language from the 14th to the late 18th century. The continued official use of Newari into the Shah dynasty is shown by the 1775 treaty with Tibet, which was written in the language, but it was gradually replaced in official use by Gorkhali.Template:Sfn From the early 20th century until democratization, Newar suffered from official suppression.<ref name=tumbahang2010 /> During this period, the use of the language for business and literary purposes was declared illegal, and Newar authors were fined or imprisoned.Template:Sfn

The Language Commission of Nepal recommended Bagmati Province to provide Nepal Bhasa (Newar) the status of official language, alongside Tamang. The commission also recommends Nepal Bhasa (Newar) for official status in specific areas and purposes in Province No. 1 and Gandaki Province.<ref name="langcomreport">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> At local levels, Nepal Bhasa (Newar) has official status in Kathmandu Metropolitan City,<ref name="kathmandu">Template:Cite news</ref> Lalitpur Metropolitan City<ref name="kapali1142">Template:Cite book</ref> and Kirtipur Municipality<ref name="kirtipur">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Chandragiri Municipality, Shankharapur Municipality, Tarkeshwor Municipality of Kathmandu district; Banepa Municipality, Dhulikhel Municipality of Kavre district; Godavari Municipality of Lalitpur district; and Bhaktapur Municipality, Madhyapur Thimi Municipality of Bhaktapur district have recognized Nepal Bhasa in some ways. Similarly, Bhimeshor Municipality has recognized and made policy-level decisions for Dolakha Nepal Bhasa.<ref name="kapali1142" />

IndiaEdit

Newar is an additional official language in Sikkim for the purpose of preservation of culture and tradition in the state.<ref name="sikkimgov">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The official weekly publication Sikkim Herald has a Newar Edition.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Information & Public Relations Department also broadcasts news bulletin in Newar.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

EducationEdit

Nepal Bhasa is included as elective mother tongue subject in schools by Curriculum Development Committee.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Tribhuvan University offers Bachelors, Masters, Mphil and PhD degree in Nepal Bhasa.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> ExpatriatesTemplate:Who? can study Nepal Bhasa at Bishwa Bhasa Campus in Kathmandu.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Kathmandu Metropolitan City and Kirtipur Municipality are teaching Nepal Bhasa as a local language.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Newar is taught in schools of Sikkim.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Relationship with other Tibeto-Burman languagesEdit

The exact placement of Newar within the Tibeto-Burman language family has been a source of controversies and confusion. Robert Shafer classified Newar as part of his Bodic division of Sino-Tibetan.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> George Van Driem classified Newar within the Mahakiranti grouping but he later retracted his hypothesis in 2003. Moreover, he proposed a new grouping called "Maha-Newari" which possibly includes Baram–Thangmi.<ref name="Turin2004">Template:Cite journal</ref>

T. R. Kansakar attributes the difficulty about the placement of Newar to the inability of scholars to connect it with the migration patterns of the Tibeto-Burman speakers. Since Newar separated from rest of the family very early in history, it is difficult or at least arbitrary to reconstruct the basic stratum that contributed to present day Newar speech. He underscored the point that the language evolved from mixed racial/linguistic influences that do not lend easily to a neat classification.<ref name="thlib">Template:Cite journal</ref>

A classification (based on Glover's<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>) indicating a percentage of shared vocabulary within the labeled branch and an approximate time of split:Template:Citation needed

Template:Barlabel

ɫ "%" indicates lexical similarity/common vocabulary between Newar and the other languages in the branch. The date indicates an approximate time when the language diverged.
ɞ Van Driem labelled this branch as "Parakiranti" and included it together with Kiranti branch to form Maha Kiranti group. However, he would later drop this hypothesis.
ʌ All languages within this branch have extensive Indo-Aryan vocabulary. It is hypothesised that either ancient IndoAryan admixture happened before Newar-Thangmi-Baram split or that Thangmi-Baram borrowed through Newari.<ref name="Turin2004"/>

History and developmentEdit

OriginEdit

<timeline>

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DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:-2500 till:2100 TimeAxis = orientation:hor ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:400 start:-2400

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 bar:Age color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
 from:start  till:-2200   shift:(-20, 0) text:Antiquity
 from:-2200    till:400  shift:($dx, 0) color:yellow text:Proto Newari
 from:400   till:2000  shift:($dx, 0) color:green text:Historical Age
 at:2000  shift:(10, -140) text:AD
 at:-2200  shift:(0, -150) text:←Proto-Newari diverges from Proto-Chepangi
 at:-200  shift:(-160, -165) text:Arrival of Charumati in the Valley→
 at:-200  shift:(0, -180) text:←start of Indo-Aryanization through Magadhi Prakrit?
 at: 200  shift:(-190, -195) text:Ascension of Lichhavi King Jayavarma-I→
 at: 200  shift:(0, -210) text:←start of Sanskritization?
 at: 1300  shift:(-181, -225) text:Arrival of last Karnat King Nanyadeva→
 at: 1300  shift:(0, -240) text:←start of Maithali influence
at: 1400  shift:(0, -255) text:←start of Persian/Arabic influence
 at: 1600  shift:(-135, -270) text:start of Khas Bhasa influence→
 at: 600  shift:(-240, -285) text:Rise of Songtsen Gampo and influence of Tibetan→
 at: 1920  shift:(0, -300) text:←Hindi and English influence

 bar:Era5 color:blue width:18 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
 from:-200  till:1980   shift:(0, 0) text:Indo-Aryanization period
 from:1980  till:2000   shift:(0, 0) text:←Recent attempts to de-Sanskritize

 bar:Era color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
 from:400  till:1200   shift:(-20, 0) text:Ancient Era
 from:1200 till:1850  shift:(-20, 0) color:yellow text:Medieval era
 from:1850 till:1940  shift:(7, 0) color:black text:Dark era

 bar:Era2 color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
 from:1909 till:1940  shift:(5, 0) color:blue text:Renaiassance

 bar:Era3 color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
 from:1950 till:2000  shift:(5, 0) color:green text:Modern Era

 bar:Era4 color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
 from:1960 till:1990  shift:(2, 0) color:black text:Dark era

</timeline>According to the Linguist Glover, Newar and Chepang language must have diverged around 2200 BC. It is estimated that Newar shares 28% of its vocabulary with Chepang. At the same time, a very large and significant proportion of Newari vocabulary is Indo-European in origin, by one estimate more than 50%, indicating an influence of at least 1,600 years from Indo-European languages, first from Sanskrit, Maithili, Persian, and Urdu and today from Hindi, Nepali and English.<ref>David N. Gellner (1986). Language, caste, religion and territory: Newar identity ancient and modern, European Journal of Sociology, p.102-148</ref>

Licchavi DynastyEdit

The Sanskrit language stone inscriptions of the Licchavi period (approximately 400–750) contains frequent use of Sino-Tibetan words especially for proper nouns.<ref name=":4" /> Almost 80 percent of the names of places, taxes and merchandise used in the inscriptions are Tibeto-Burman in origin.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":p1">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn It suggests that Newar existed as a vernacular language since at least the Lichhavi Dynasty.<ref name=":4" /> According to the Gopal Raj Vamshavali, a 14th century Newar language history book, before the Licchavis of Vaishali conquered Nepal, it was ruled by the Kirata and the language they spoke, which is referred by historians such as Shrestha as Kiranti, is believed to be the old form of the Newar language.<ref name=":p1" /> For instance, in an inscription from 594 located in present day Bhaktapur, the area is referred as khopṛiṅa which closely resmbles the classical and modern Newar name for the city, khopa.<ref name=":p2">Template:Cite book</ref>

Medieval eraEdit

Template:Main articles

File:MS Indic 1936, Appeasement of the Grahas Wellcome L0031358.jpg
A page from a Astrology book from 1480 written in Newar.
File:A Nepalese Expenditure Book from 1681.jpg
A expenditure book written in the Newar Language from 1681.

It is during this period that the earliest dated document written entirely in Newar was written, a palm-leaf manuscript preserved in Uku Bāhā, a Buddhist monastery in Lalitpur, which dates from 1114.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite news Pages 15–25.</ref> Following is a line from the document which mostly deals with business transaction.<ref name=":3" />

Original English Translation
chīna ḍhākō tr̥saṃghaṣa paribhōga, chu pulēṃga kītya bipāra vastra

bivu mikhā tivu maduguna chu sāta duguna valhe

The community should keep an eye on what remains and

replace for what is lost, with a remaining object or gift rightly sold out, give some clothes.

The first inscription written entirely in Newar set up by the royal family also dates from this period; a stone inscription from Bajrayogini Temple of Rudra Malla from 1127 (NS 293).<ref name=":6">Template:Cite news</ref>

The Newar language of the Medieval era (879 to 1769 CE) is referred as Classical Newar.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It is further classified into Early Classical Newar, used from 879 to 1482, when the period of three kingdom started and Late Classical Newar, from 1482 to 1769, when the Malla dynasty ended.

In the 14th century, Newar was given the status of national language by Jayasthiti Malla.<ref name=":2" /> Since then, most of royal decrees, official proclamations and public notices set up by the monarchs appeared in Newar.<ref name="Lienhard, Siegfried 1992 Page 3" /> Jayasthiti Malla himself commissioned many works in Newar like the Gopal Raj Vamshavali, a manuscript about the history of Nepal dating to 1389.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> From the 14th century onwards, an overwhelming number of stone inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley, where they are a ubiquitous element at heritage sites, are in Newar.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Bajracharya, Chunda (1985). Mallakalya Chhun Sanskriti ("Some Customs of the Malla Period"). Kathmandu: Kashinath Tamot for Nepal Bhasa Study and Research Centre.</ref>

The period from 1428 to 1769 is considered a Golden Age for Newar Literature. Many monarchs of the Malla dynasty themselves started composing hymns and dramas in Newar. Noted royal writers include Mahindra Malla, Siddhi Narsingh Malla, and Ranajit Malla. Still, there are numerous works of literature from this period with anonymous authors. Some non royal authors include Keshav Udās, Brisabhānanda and Biladātāsingha.Template:Sfn

Some notable women who wrote literature in Newar during this period include, Jagatakeshari from Banepa, Briddhi Lakshmi (queen consort of Bhaktapur), Riddhi Lakshmi (mother of Bhupalendra Malla), Jaya Lakshmi (queen consort of Yoga Narendra Malla).Template:Sfn Among them, Riddhi Lakshmi is considered to be the first woman to publish literature in Nepal as her poems are the earliest dated literature in Nepal authored by a woman.Template:Sfn

An example of the language used during this period is provided by the following lines from a poem written by Briddhi Lakshmi.Template:Sfn

OriginalTemplate:Sfn English Translation<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
kokila kokha o tī bhatu gilakhā va ati uti dhaka thva jugasa jula

dukha hāṅā hāṅā parabata jina lhvaneṅa maphuta, madata vipatiyā udhāra

This is the age, where the crow and cuckoo are considered equal, where the owl and the parrot are considered the same

I can no longer bear the mountain of grief; there is no salvation for the grieved

Dark ageEdit

Newar began to be sidelined after the Gorkha conquest of Nepal and the ouster of the Malla dynasty by the Shah dynasty in the late 18th century. Since then, its history has been one of constant suppression and struggle against official disapproval.<ref name="Shrestha">Template:Cite news</ref>

Following the advent of the Shahs, the Gorkhali language became the court language,<ref>Levy, Robert I. (1990) Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Template:ISBN. Page 15.</ref> and Newar was replaced as the language of administration.<ref>Los Angeles County Museum of Art and Pal, Pratapaditya (1985) Art of Nepal: A Catalogue of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art Collection. University of California Press. Template:ISBN. Page 19.</ref> However, Newar continued to remain in official use for a time as shown by the 1775 treaty with Tibet which was written in it.<ref name="Lienhard, Siegfried 1992 Page 3"/> A few of the new rulers cultivated the language. Kings Prithvi Narayan Shah, Rana Bahadur and Rajendra Bikram Shah composed poetry and wrote plays in it.

Newar suffered heavily under the repressive policy of the Rana dynasty (1846–1951 AD) when the regime attempted to wipe it out.<ref>Template:Cite news Page 186.</ref><ref>Template:Cite news Page 10.</ref> In 1906, legal documents written in Newar were declared unenforceable, and any evidence in the language was declared null and void.<ref>Template:Cite news Page 8.</ref> The rulers forbade literature in Newar, and writers were sent to jail.<ref name="Lienhard, Siegfried 1992 Page 4">Lienhard, Siegfried (1992). Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. Template:ISBN. Page 4.</ref> In 1944, Buddhist monks who wrote in the language were expelled from the country.<ref>LeVine, Sarah and Gellner, David N. (2005). Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal. Harvard University Press. Template:ISBN, 9780674019089. Pages 47–49.</ref><ref>Hridaya, Chittadhar (1982, third ed.) Jheegu Sahitya ("Our Literature"). Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Parisad. Page 8.</ref>

Moreover, hostility towards the language from neighbours grew following massive migration into the Kathmandu Valley leading to the indigenous Newars becoming a minority.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> During the period 1952 to 1991, the percentage of the valley population speaking Newar dropped from 74.95% to 43.93%.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Nepal Bhasa movement arose as an effort to save the language.

Nepal Bhasa movementEdit

File:Black day sit-in 2013 June 1.jpg
Sit-in outside the prime minister's residence to mark Black Day on 1 June 2013.

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Newars have been fighting to save their language in the face of opposition from the government and hostile neighbours from the time of the repressive Rana regime till today.<ref name="Hoek, Bert van den and Shrestha, Balgopal"/> The movement arose against the suppression of the language that began with the rise of the Shah dynasty in 1768 AD, and intensified during the Rana regime (1846–1951) and Panchayat system (1960–1990).<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

At various times, the government has forbidden literature in Newar, banned the official use and removed it from the media and the educational system.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Opponents have even petitioned the Supreme Court to have its use barred.

Activism has taken the form of publication of books and periodicals to public meets and protest rallies. Writers and language workers have been jailed or expelled from the country, and they have continued the movement abroad. The struggle for linguistic rights has sometimes combined with the movement for religious and political freedom in Nepal.

Renaissance eraEdit

File:Buddha dharma magazine cover 1929.jpg
Cover of Buddha Dharma wa Nepal Bhasa ("Buddhism and Nepalese") magazine dated 1929.
File:Aesop book cover.jpg
'Aesop's Fables' in Newar by Jagat Sundar Malla, first published in 1915.

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The period between 1909 and 1941 is considered as the renaissance era of Newar.<ref>शुक्रराज अस्पताल स्मारिका २०५७, Page 52, नेपालभाषाको पुनर्जागरणमा शुक्रराज शास्त्री by सह-प्रा. प्रेमशान्ति तुलाधर</ref> During this period, a few authors braved official disapproval and started writing, translating, educating and restructuring the language. Writers Nisthananda Bajracharya, Siddhidas Mahaju, Jagat Sundar Malla and Yogbir Singh Kansakar are honored as the Four Pillars of Nepal Bhasa. Shukraraj Shastri and Dharmaditya Dharmacharya were also at the forefront of the Renaissance.

In 1909, Bajracharya published the first printed book using movable type. Shastri wrote a grammar of the language entitled Nepal Bhasa Vyakaran, the first one in modern times. It was published from Kolkata in 1928. His other works include Nepal Bhasa Reader, Books 1 and 2 (1933) and an alphabet book Nepali Varnamala (1933).<ref>Bajracharya, Phanindra Ratna (2003). Who's Who in Nepal Bhasha. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Academy. Page 27.</ref>

Mahaju's translation of the Ramayan and books on morals and ethics, Malla's endeavours to impart education in the native language and other literary activities marked the renaissance. Dharmacharya published the first magazine in Newar Buddha Dharma wa Nepal Bhasa ("Buddhism and Nepalese") from Kolkata in 1925. Also, the Renaissance marked the beginning of the movement to get official recognition for the name "Nepal Bhasa" in place of the Khas imposed term "Newari".

Some of the lines of Mahaju read as follows:

सज्जन मनुष्या संगतनं मूर्ख नापं भिना वै
sajjana manuṣyā saṃgatanaṃ mūrkha nāpaṃ bhinā vai
पलेला लपते ल वंसा म्वति थें ल सना वै
palēlā lapatē la vaṃsā mvati thēṃ la sanā vai

The verse states that even a moron can improve with the company of good people just like a drop of water appears like a pearl when it descends upon the leaves of a lotus plant.

Modern NewarEdit

Jail yearsEdit

The years 1941–1945 are known as the jail years for the large number of authors who were imprisoned for their literary or political activities. It was a productive period and resulted in an outpouring of literary works.

Chittadhar Hridaya, Siddhicharan Shrestha and Phatte Bahadur Singh were among the prominent writers of the period who were jailed for their writings. While in prison, Hridaya produced his greatest work Sugata Saurabha,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> an epic poem on the life of Gautama Buddha.<ref name="Lienhard, Siegfried 1992 Page 4"/> Shrestha wrote a collection of poems entitled Seeswan ("Wax Flower", published in 1948) among other works. Singh (1902–1983) was sentenced to life imprisonment for editing and publishing an anthology of poems by various poets entitled Nepali Bihar.<ref>Shrestha, Siddhicharan (1992). Siddhicharanya Nibandha ("Siddhicharan's Essays"). Kathmandu: Phalcha Pithana. Page 73.</ref>

The efforts of Newar authors coincided with the revival of Theravada Buddhism in Nepal, which the rulers disliked equally. In 1946, the monks who had been exiled by the Ranas in 1944 for teaching Buddhism and writing in Newar were allowed to return following international pressure. Restrictions on publication were relaxed, and books could be published after being censored. The monks wrote wide-ranging books on Buddhism and greatly enriched the corpus of religious literature.<ref>LeVine, Sarah and Gellner, David N. (2005). Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal. Harvard University Press. Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN. Pages 47–49.</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} Pages 89–90.</ref>

Outside the Kathmandu Valley in the 1940s, poets like Ganesh Lal Shrestha of Hetauda composed songs and put on performances during festivals.<ref>Bajracharya, Phanindra Ratna (2003). Who's Who in Nepal Bhasha. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Academy. Template:ISBN. Page 225.</ref>

The 1950sEdit

File:Nepal bhasa patrika fp.jpg
Nepal Bhasa Patrika daily newspaper dated 5 November 1960.

Following the overthrow of the Rana dynasty and the advent of democracy in 1951, restrictions on publication in Newar were removed. Books, magazines and newspapers appeared. A daily newspaper Nepal Bhasa Patrika began publication in 1955.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Textbooks were published and Newar was included in the curriculum. Nepal Rastriya Vidhyapitha recognised Newar as an alternative medium of instruction in the schools and colleges affiliated to it.

Literary societies like Nepal Bhasa Parisad were formed and Chwasa: Pasa returned from exile.<ref name="Shrestha"/> In 1958, Kathmandu Municipality passed a resolution that it would accept applications and publish major decisions in Newar in addition to the Nepali language.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Second dark ageEdit

Democracy lasted for a brief period, and Newar and other languages of Nepal entered a second Dark Age with the dissolution of parliament and the imposition of the Panchayat system in 1960. Under its policy of "one nation, one language", only the Nepali language was promoted, and all the other languages of Nepal were suppressed as "ethnic" or "local" languages.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In 1963, Kathmandu Municipality's decision to recognize Newar was revoked. In 1965, the language was also banned from being broadcast over Radio Nepal.<ref>Template:Cite news Page 14.</ref> Those who protested against the ban were put in prison, including Buddhist monk Sudarshan Mahasthavir.

The New Education System Plan brought out in 1971 eased out Nepal's other languages from the schools in a bid to diminish the country's multi-lingual traditions.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Students were discouraged from choosing their native language as an elective subject because it was lumped with technical subjects.<ref name="Hoek, Bert van den and Shrestha, Balgopal">Template:Cite news Page 75.</ref> Nepal's various languages began to stagnate as the population could not use them for official, educational, employment or legal purposes.

Birat Nepal Bhasa Sahitya Sammelan Guthi (Grand Nepal Bhasa Literary Conference Trust), formed in 1962 in Bhaktapur, and Nepal Bhasa Manka Khala, founded in 1979 in Kathmandu, are some of the prominent organizations that emerged during this period to struggle for language rights. The names of these organizations also annoyed the government which, on one occasion in 1979, changed the name of Brihat Nepal Bhasa Sahitya Sammelan Guthi in official media reports.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} Page 34.</ref>

Some lines by the famous poet Durga Lal Shrestha of this era are as follows:<ref>{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}</ref>

घाः जुयाः जक ख्वइगु खः झी
स्याःगुलिं सः तइगु खः
झी मसीनि ! झी मसीनि !
धइगु चिं जक ब्वैगु खः
We are crying because we are wounded
We are shouting because of the pain
All in all, we are demonstrating
That we are not dead yet.

Post-1990 People's MovementEdit

After the 1990 People's Movement that brought the Panchayat system to an end, the languages of Nepal enjoyed greater freedom.<ref>Template:Cite news Page 310.</ref> The 1990 constitution recognized Nepal as a multiethnic and multilingual country. The Nepali language in the Devanagari script was declared the language of the nation and the official language. Meanwhile, all the languages spoken as native languages in Nepal were named national languages.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In 1997, Kathmandu Metropolitan City declared that its policy to officially recognize Nepal Bhasa would be revived. The rest of the city governments in the Kathmandu Valley announced that they too would recognize it. However, critics petitioned the Supreme Court to have the policy annulled, and in 1999, the Supreme Court quashed the decision of the local bodies as being unconstitutional.<ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Dead link</ref>

Post-2006 People's MovementEdit

A second People's Movement in 2006 ousted the Shah dynasty and Nepal became a republic which gave the people greater linguistic freedom. The 2007 Interim Constitution states that the use of one's native language in a local body or office shall not be barred.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, this has not happened in practice. Organizations with names in Newar are not registered, and municipality officials refuse to accept applications written in the language.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The restoration of democracy has been marked by the privatization of the media. Various people and organizations are working for the development of Newar. Newar has several newspapers, a primary level curriculum, several schools, several FM stations (selected time for Newar programs), regular TV programs and news (on Image TV Channel), Nepal Bhasa Music Award (a part of Image Award) and several websites (including a Wikipedia in Nepal Bhasa<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>).

The number of schools teaching Newar has increased, and Newar is also being offered in schools outside the Kathmandu Valley.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Outside Nepal MandalaEdit

Inscriptions written in Newar occur across Nepal Mandala and outside.

In Gorkha, the Bhairav Temple at Pokharithok Bazaar contains an inscription dated Nepal Sambat 704 (1584 AD), which is 185 years before the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley by the Gorkha Kingdom. The Palanchowk Bhagawati Temple situated to the east of Kathmandu contains an inscription recording a land donation dated Nepal Sambat 861 (1741 AD).<ref>Hridaya, Chittadhar (ed.) (1971). Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Jatah. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Parisad. Page 113.</ref>

In Bhojpur in east Nepal, an inscription at the Bidyadhari Ajima Temple dated Nepal Sambat 1011 (1891 AD) records the donation of a door and tympanum. The Bindhyabasini Temple in Bandipur in west Nepal contains an inscription dated Nepal Sambat 950 (1830 AD) about the donation of a tympanum.<ref>Jhee (February–March 1975). Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Bikas Mandal. Page 9.</ref>

Outside Nepal, Newar has been used in Tibet. Official documents and inscriptions recording votive offerings made by Newar traders have been found in Lhasa.<ref>Hridaya, Chittadhar (ed.) (1971). Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Jatah. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Parisad. Pages 255–256.</ref> A copper plate dated Nepal Sambat 781 (1661 AD) recording the donation of a tympanum is installed at the shrine of Chhwaskamini Ajima (Tibetan: Palden Lhamo) in the Jokhang Temple.<ref>Hridaya, Chittadhar (ed.) (1971). Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Jatah. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Parisad. Page 47.</ref>

LiteratureEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:Poem written in Newar by Briddhi Lakshmi.svg
ka kha yā mye ("a song of ka and kha"), a Newar language poem written by Briddhi Lakhmi, the queen consort of Bhaktapur.Template:Sfn
File:Grahas (Seizers), Six Folios From a Book of Charms LACMA M.82.169.11.jpg
A folio from a Book of Charms written in the Bhujimol script from the 16th century.

Newar literature has a long history. It has one of the oldest literatures of the Sino-Tibetan languages (together with Chinese, Tibetan, Tangut, Burmese, Yi, etc.)

DramaEdit

Dramas are traditionally performed in open Dabu (stage). Most of the traditional dramas are tales related to deities and demons. Masked characters and music are central elements to such dramas. Most of them are narrated with the help of songs sung at intervals. Such dramas resemble dance in many cases. The theme of most dramas is the creation of a social well-being with morals illustrating the rise, turbulence, and fall of evil. There is fixed dates in the Nepal Sambat (Nepal Era) calendar for the performance of specific drama. Most of the dramas are performed by specific Guthis.

PoetryEdit

Poetry writing constituted a splendid part of medieval Malla aristocracy. Many of the kings were well-renowned poets. Siddhidas Mahaju and Chittadhar Hridaya are two great poets in the language.

Prose fictionEdit

Prose fiction in Newar is a relatively new field of literature compared to other fields. Most fiction was written in poetry form until the medieval era. Consequently, almost all prose fiction belongs to the modern Newar era. Collections of short stories in Newar are more popular than novels.

StoryEdit

The art of verbal storytelling is very old in Newar. There are a variety of mythical and social stories that have aided in establishing the norm of Kathmandu valley. Stories ranging from the origin of Kathmandu valley to the temples of the valley and the important monuments have been passed down verbally in Newar and very few exist in written form. However, with an increase in the literacy rate and an awareness among the people, folklore stories are being written down. Stories on other topics are also becoming popular.

DialectsEdit

Kansakar (2011)<ref>Kansakar, Tej R. 2011. A sociolinguistic survey of Newar / Nepal Bhasa. Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN), Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal.</ref> recognizes three main Newar dialect clusters.

  • Western: Tansen (Palpa), Butwal, Nepalgunj, Old Pokhara, Dumre, Bandipur, Ridhi (Gulmi), Baglung, Dotili / Silgadi
  • Central: Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Thimi, Kirtipur, Chitlang, Lele, Balaju, Tokha, Pharping, Thankot, Dadikot, Balami, Gopali, Bungamati, Badegaon, Pyangaon, Chapagaon, Lubhu, Sankhu, Chakhunti, Gamtsa Gorkha, Badikhel (Pahari), Kavrepalanchok District dialects (Banepa, Nala, Sangaa, Chaukot, Panauti, Dhulikhel, Duti), Khampu, Khopasi
  • Eastern: Chainpur, Dharan, Dolakha, Sindhupalchok, Taplejung, Terhathum, Bhojpur, Dhankuta, Narayangadh, Jhapa, Ilam

Kansakar (2011) also gives the following classification of Newar dialects based on verb conjugation morphology.

  • Central
    • Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Kirtipur, Chitlang, Lele
    • Bhaktapur, Thimi
  • Eastern
    • Dolakha, Tauthali, Jethal, Listikot, Doti
    • Pahari (Badikhel)

Kapali (1141 N.S.) gives the following classification of Nepal Bhasa dialects based on mutual intelligibility.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

  • Nepa Valley (Kathmandu Valley)
    • Eastern – includes the region of Bhaktapur, Sakwa and seven villages of Kavre.
    • Western – includes Kathmandu and Lalitpur
  • Dwalkha- includes Dolakha and Charikot of Dolakha district, Tauthali and Jethal of Sindupalchok district, and Duti of Kavre district.
  • Smaller dialects based on locality
    • Pyang gaan, a village in Lalitpur
  • Smaller dialects based on caste group
    • Gopali
    • Balami
    • Pahari

Other ways Nepal Bhasa is classified are as follows:-

Bhaktapur
Also known as Khwapey Bhāy {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, this dialect is more archaic than the standard. Variations exist in the use of this form of language in Bhaktapur, Banepa, Panauti, and Dhulikhel.
Chitlang
This dialect is used in Chitlang, a place south of Kathmandu valley in Makawanpur district. This is one of the biggest Newar bastions at Chitlang. Balami caste predominates there.
Dolakha
This is the most preserved form of the language and resembles the old Newar.
Kathmandu-Lalitpur
Kathmandu dialect, also known as Yenmi Bhāy {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, is one of the dominant forms of the language and very close to the standard form of the language used in academia and media. It is also the most widely used dialect. It is spoken especially in Kathmandu. Lalitpur dialect, also known as Yeley Bhāy {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, is the most dominant form of language and is the standard form of language used in academics and media. It is also very widely used dialect. It is especially spoken in Lalitpur. Due to the similarity between Kathmandu and Lalitpur dialects, it is often grouped as one. Almost 95% of Nepal Bhasa publications are in this dialect.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Pahari
Pahari variation of Nepal Bhasa is spoken among the Pahari caste.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Pyangaan
A variation of Nepal Bhasa spoken in Pyaangaan town of Lalitpur district.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Religions play a register-like role in dialectical diversity though they are minor. It has been recorded from the Malla period. There are some vocabulary differences used among Newar Hindus and Buddhists but the dialects of Patan and Kathmandu are similar. Hinduism and Buddhism were present at that age and few words in Hinduism and Buddhism of Newar differs. With the recent growth of Christianity, Islam, other religions, and atheism in Nepal, the diversity in the speech registers regarding religious terminology has become more extended, such as omitting the word dyaḥ ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'god') after the name of a deity by many people whereas it is retained in Hinduism and Buddhism.

PhonologyEdit

ConsonantsEdit

Labial Dental/
Alveolar 		Retroflex (Alveolo-)
palatal 		Velar Glottal
Nasal voiced Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
murmured Template:IPA link1 Template:IPA link1
Stop/
Affricate 		voiceless Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link2 Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
aspirated Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link2 Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
voiced Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link2 Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
murmured Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link2 Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Fricative Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Tap voiced (Template:IPA link) Template:IPAblink2
murmured Template:IPAblink2 Template:IPAblink2
Approximant voiced Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
murmured Template:IPA link1 Template:IPA link1 Template:IPA link1
  1. Only in Kathmandu Newar.
  2. Only in Dolakha Newar.
Notes
  • Marginal phonemes are in parentheses.
  • Allophonic variants are in Square brackets.
  • Tap consonants mainly occur as word-medial alternates of /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/, /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/, /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/ or /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/ (in Dolakha only).
  • /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/ can be heard as [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}] when occurring before front vowels/glide /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/.
  • In Kathmandu Newar, /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/ only occurs as word-final.
  • Affricates /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/ can also shift to retracted sounds [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}] when occurring before back vowels.

VowelsEdit

Front Central Back
short long nasal short long nasal short long nasal
Close Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Close-mid Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Mid (Template:IPA link) (Template:IPA link) (Template:IPA link) Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link
Open-mid Template:IPA link1 Template:IPA link1
Open Template:IPA link1 Template:IPA link1 Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
  1. Only in Kathmandu Newar.
  • In Kathmandu Newar, the back vowel sounds /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/ occur as [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}], [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}], or [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}].
  • In Dolakha Newar, the back vowel sounds /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/, can occur [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}], [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}], or [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}].<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
  • /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/ and /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/ can also be heard as [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}], and [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}].
  • The following nasal vowels can also be distinguished in vowel length as /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/.

DiphthongsEdit

Front Central Back
oral nasal oral nasal oral nasal
Diphthong Close main}} main}}
Mid main}} main}} main}} main}} main}} main}}
Open main}} main}} main}} main}}

Writing systemsEdit

File:Pratap inscription.jpg
Detail of King Pratap Malla's inscription at Kathmandu Durbar Square of 1654 AD written in Nepal Lipi.
File:Ranjana prayer wheels.jpg
Prayer wheels with the mantra "Om Mani Padme Hum" in Ranjana script at Swayambhu, Kathmandu.

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Nepal Bhasa is currently written in Nepal Lipi, Ranjana Lipi and Devanagari script. The script originally used, Nepal Lipi or "Nepalese script", fell into disuse at the beginning of the 20th century when writing in the language and the script was banned, which resulted in emergence of Devanagari script.Template:Sfn However, in past decades attempts are being made for revival.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Nepal Lipi, also known as Nepal Akha,<ref>Lienhard, Siegfried (1992). Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. Template:ISBN. Page 2.</ref> emerged in the 10th century. Over the centuries, a number of variants of Nepali Lipi have appeared.

Nepal has been written in a variety of abugida scripts:

Devanagari is the most widely used script at present, as it is common in Nepal and India. Ranjana script was the most widely used script to write Classical Nepalese in ancient times. It is experiencing a revival due to the recent rise of cultural awareness. The Prachalit script is also in use. All used to write Nepal but Devanagari are descended from a script called the Nepal script.Template:Citation needed

Ranjana alphabetEdit

Classical Nepalese materials written in Ranjana can be found in present-day Nepal, East Asia, and Central Asia.

ConsonantsEdit

Special consonant in Nepal omitted.

File:Ranjana k.svg k क File:Ranjana kh.svg kʰ ख File:Ranjana g.svg g ग File:Ranjana gh.svg gʱ घ File:Ranjana ng.svg ŋ ङ
File:Ranjana c.svg t͡ɕ च File:Ranjana ch.svg t͡ɕʰ छ File:Ranjana j.svg d͡ʑ ज File:Ranjana jh.svg d͡ʑʱ झ File:Ranjana ny.svg ɲ ञ
File:Ranjana tt.svg ʈ ट File:Ranjana tth.svg ʈʰ ठ File:Ranjana dd.svg ɖ ड File:Ranjana ddh.svg ɖʱ ढ File:Ranjana nn.svg ɳ ण
File:Ranjana t.svg t त File:Ranjana th.svg tʰ थ File:Ranjana d.svg d द File:Ranjana dh.svg dʱ ध File:Ranjana n.svg n न
File:Ranjana p.svg p प File:Ranjana ph.svg pʰ फ File:Ranjana b.svg b ब File:Ranjana bh.svg bʱ भ File:Ranjana m.svg m म
File:Ranjana y.svg y य File:Ranjana r.svg r र File:Ranjana l.svg l ल File:Ranjana v.svg w व
File:Ranjana sh.svg ɕ श File:Ranjana ss.svg ʂ ष File:Ranjana s.svg s̪ स File:Ranjana h.svg h ह
File:Ranjana ksh.svg kʂ क्ष File:Ranjana tr.svg t̪r त्र File:Ranjana jny.svg d͡ʑɲ ज्ञ

VowelsEdit

Template:Multiple image

There are 3 series of vowel diacritics – the {{#invoke:IPA|main}}-like system, the {{#invoke:IPA|main}}-like system, and the {{#invoke:IPA|main}}-like system.

  • Use the {{#invoke:IPA|main}}-like system when applying to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
  • Use the {{#invoke:IPA|main}}-like system when applying to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
  • Use the {{#invoke:IPA|main}}-like system when applying to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}

Note that many of the consonants mentioned above (e.g. {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, etc.) occur only in loan words and mantras.

Consonant-free vowelsEdit

NumeralsEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

  • The numerals used in Ranjana script are as follows (from 0 to 9):
File:Ranjana 0.svg 0 File:Ranjana 1.svg 1 File:Ranjana 2.svg 2 File:Ranjana 3.svg 3 File:Ranjana 4.svg 4 File:Ranjana 5.svg 5 File:Ranjana 6.svg 6 File:Ranjana 7.svg 7 File:Ranjana 8.svg 8 File:Ranjana 9.svg 9

Devanagari orthographyEdit

Modern Newar is written generally with the Devanagari script, although formerly it was written in the Ranjana and other scripts. The letters of the Nagari alphabet are traditionally listed in the order vowels (monophthongs and diphthongs), anusvara and visarga, stops (plosives and nasals) (starting in the back of the mouth and moving forward), and finally the liquids and fricatives, written in IAST as follows (see the tables below for details):

a ā i ī u ū ṛ ṝ ḷ ḹ; e ai o au
ṃ ḥ
k kh g gh ṅ; c ch j jh ñ; ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ; t th d dh n; p ph b bh m
y r l v; ś ṣ s h

Kathmandu Newar does not use ñ for the palatal nasal but instead writes this sound with the ligature Template:Angle bracket as for example in the word nyā 'five'. Orthographic vowel length (i vs ī and u vs ū) represents a difference of vowel length while the vowels with no orthographic length (a and ā) is indicated with the visarga (e.g. khāḥ (IPA: {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) 'is').

VowelsEdit

The vowels, called mā ākha (माआखः), meaning "mother letters", used in Newar are:

Orthography अ अः आ आः इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ॠ ऌ ॡ ए ऐ ओ औ अँ अं अय् आय् एय्
Roman a a: aa aa: i ii u uu ri rii lri lrii e ai o au an aN ay aay ey

Even though ऋ, ॠ, ऌ, ॡ are present in Newar, they are rarely used. Instead, some experts suggest including अय् (ay) and आय् (aay) in the list of vowels.<ref>Nepal Bhasa Wyaakarana (page 2) by Tuyubahadur Maharjan, published by Nepal Bhasa Academy</ref>

ConsonantsEdit

The consonants, called bā ākha (बाआखः), meaning "father letters", used in Newar are:

क ख ग घ ङ ङ्ह
main}} main}} main}} main}} main}} main}}
च छ ज झ ञ ञ्ह
main}} main}} main}} main}} main}} main}}
ट ठ ड ढ ण ण्ह
main}} main}} main}} main}} main}} main}}
त थ द ध न न्ह
main}} main}} main}} main}} main}} main}}
प फ ब भ म म्ह
main}} main}} main}} main}} main}} main}}
य ह्य र ह्र ल ल्ह व व्ह
main}} main}} main}} main}} main}} main}} main}} main}}
श ष स ह
main}} main}} main}} main}}
क्ष त्र ज्ञ
main}} main}} main}}

ङ्ह, ञ्ह, ण्ह, न्ह, म्ह, ह्य, ह्र, ल्ह and व्ह are sometimes included in the list of consonants as they have a specific identity in Nepal.

The use of ङ and ञ was very common in the old form of language. However, in the new form, especially in writing, the use of these characters has diminished. The use of ण, त, थ, द, ध, न, श, ष, क्ष, त्र, ज्ञ is limited by the new grammar books to the loan words only.

Complex/compound consonantsEdit

Besides the consonants mentioned above, combined consonants called chinā ākha (चिना आखः) are used.

NumeralsEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

  • The same numerals in Devanagari are:
In Devanāgarī
० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

RomanizationEdit

Nepala Bhasa Roman Transliteration (NBRT) was introduced in 2021, with some modifications to International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration.<ref name="nbrt">Template:Cite book</ref>

GrammarEdit

Template:Cleanup Newar language is one of the few Tibeto-Burman languages with a clusivity distinction.

Noun casesEdit

Noun cases in Newar have six cases and are differentiated based on whether the term in question is animate or inanimate. The following charts provides case endings that can be affixed on the end of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in IAST transliteration for contemporary and old (or "classical") Newar.

Noun Case Endings in Contemporary Newar<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Inanimate Animate/non-honorific Animate/honorific
Case Singular Singular Plural Singular Plural
Instrumental/Ergative -ṃ, -ḥṃ -ṃ, -ḥṃ (-sa-) -ṃ,

-ḥṃ,

-ṃ, -ḥṃ -pisaṃ,

-pisaḥṃ

Absolutive -ø -ø -ta -ø -pīṃ
Sociative X -yāke, -ike -tayke -yāke, -ike -pīṃke
Dative -yāta -yāta, -ta -tayta, -ita -yāta -pīṃta
Genitive -yā -yā -tay -yā -pini
Locative -e, -ay, -ī X X X X
Noun Case Endings in Old Newar<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Inanimate Animate/non-honorific Animate/honorific
Case Singular Singular Plural Singular Plural
Instrumental/Ergative -n -n -taseṃ -n, -seṃ -paniseṃ
Absolutive -ø -ø -ta, -to -ø -pani
Sociative -va -va -mis(a)va -va -panis(a)va
Dative -taṃ, -yātā -taṃ, -yātaṃ -mistaṃ -yātaṃ -panistaṃ
Genitive -yā -yā -tas, -mis -yā -panis
Locative -s -(s)ke, -yāke X -(s)ke, -yāke -paniske

Sentence structureEdit

Statement sentence-
This language is a SOV (subject–object–verb) language. For instance, "My name is Bilat (Birat)" is "Jigu Na'aa Bilat Khaa'a " which word by word translation becomes, "My (Jigu) Name (Na'aa) Bilat is (Khaa'a)".

Interrogative sentence-
Wh-question:
In the case of Newar language, Wh-questions are rather "G-questions" with "when/which" being replaced by "Gublay/Gugu" respectively. There is an additional "Guli" which is used for "How much/How many". A S-word "Soo" is used for "who". "Chhoo/Schoo (with a silent 's')" is used for "What", and "Gathey" is used for "How".

AffixesEdit

Suffix- "Chaa" and "Ju" are two popular suffixes. "Chaa" is added to signify "junior" or "lesser". But when added to a name, it is used derogatorily. For example, kya'ah-chaa means nephew where "chaa" is being added to kya'ah(son). When added to name like Birat for "Birat-chaa", it is being used derogatorily. The suffix "ju" is added to show respect. For example, "Baa-ju" means "father-in-law" where "ju" is added to "Baa(father)". Unlike "chaa", "ju" is not added to a first/last name directly. Instead, honorific terms like "Bhaaju" is added for males and "Mayju" for females. Example, "Birat bhaaju" for a male name (Birat) and "Suja Mayju" for a female name (Suja).

Prefix – "Tap'ah" is added to denote "remote" or "distant" relative ('distance' in relationship irrespective of spatial extent). A distant (younger) brother (kija) becomes "tap'ah-kija". "Tuh" is added to denote "higher". Father (baa)'s senior brother is referred to as "Tuh-baa".

Indo-Aryan loanwordsEdit

Newar is one of the most Aryanized Sino-Tibetan languages. Below are some basic words borrowed from Indo-Iranian languages:<ref>From the review article on "Dictionary of classical Newari compiled from manuscript sources." With the financial support of Toyota Foundation, Japan, Nepal Bhasa Dictionary Committee. Cwasā Pāsā. Kathmandu: Modern Printing Press, Jamal 2000, pp. XXXV, 530. Template:ISBN"</ref>

Words Origin (orig. word) Meaning
Abu Persian Father
Ākha

(आख)

Sanskrit

(Akshara)

Letter
La:h (ल:) Sanskrit (Jala:h) Water
Kaa:sa Sanskrit Bronze
Ka:h Pali (Kana) Blind (Original meaning in Pali was "one-eyed")
Ka:n

(कं)

Sanskrit

(Kantaka:h)

Thorn
Kaji Arabic leader
Kimi (कीमी) Sanskrit (Krmi) Hookworm
Khaapaa (खापा) Pali Door (Original meaning in Pali was "door panel")
Khicha: (खिचा) Sanskrit (Kukkura:h) Dog
Ga:n

(गं)

Sanskrit

(Ghanta)

Bell
Dya:h Sanskrit (Dev) Deity
Naa:n Sanskrit

(Nām)

Name
Nhya:h Sanskrit (Na:sika) Nose
Bhay

(भाय्)

Sanskrit

(Bhasha)

Language
Dey (देय) Sanskrit

(Desh)

country
Bhukha Sanskrit

(Bhukampa)

Earthquake
Manu Sanskrit

(Manusya)

Person
Manda:h

(मन्द)

Sanskrit

(Mandala)

Circle
Mhu:tu Sanskrit (Mukh) Mouth
Gha:h Sanskrit

(Ghata:h)

Water pot
Dekhā Sanskrit

(Dikshā)

Initiation
Pukhuri Sanskrit

(Pukhkarini)

Pool
Niga:h Sanskrit

(Nagar)

City
Gām Sanskrit

(Grām)

Village
Lhā Sanskrit

(Hasta)

Hand

The Newar language and the Newar communityEdit

File:Newapolitics.jpg
A wall slogan of Maoists using Nepal Bhasa

Nepal Bhasa is the native language of Newars. Newars form a very diverse community with people from Sino-Tibetan, ASI and ANI origin.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Newars follow Hinduism and Buddhism, and are subdivided into 64 castes. The language, therefore, plays a central unifying role in the existence and perpetuation of the Newar community. The poet Siddhidas Mahaju concluded that the Newar community and its rich culture can only survive if the Newar language survives (भाषा म्वासा जाति म्वाइ).

The Newars enjoyed promotions in various areas since Kathmandu become the capital of the country as they rose in ranks throughout the government, royal courts and businesses.

Newar faced a decline during the Shah era when this language was replaced by Khas Kura (later renamed Nepali) as the national language and after the introduction of the "One nation, one language" policy of King Mahendra.

See alsoEdit

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NotesEdit

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ReferencesEdit

CitationsEdit

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BibliographyEdit

Further readingEdit

  • Bendix, E. (1974) ‘Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman contact as seen through Nepali and Newari verb tenses’, International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics 3.1: 42–59.
  • —— (1992) ‘The grammaticalization of responsibility and evidence: the interactional potential of evidential categories in Newari’, in J. Hill and J.T. Irvine (eds) Responsibility and Evidence in Oral Discourse, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Driem, G. van (1993) ‘The Newar verb in Tibeto-Burman perspective’, Acta Linguistica Hafniensia 26: 23–43.
  • Genetti, C. (1988) ‘A syntactic correlate of topicality in Newari narrative’, in S. Thompson and J. Haiman (eds) Clause Combining in Grammar and Discourse, Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
  • —— (1994) ‘A descriptive and historical account of the Dolakha Newari dialect’, Monumenta Serindica 24, Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
  • Hale, A. (1973) ‘On the form of the verbal basis in Newari’, in Braj Kachru et al. (eds) Issues in Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Henry and Renee Kahane, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
  • —— (1980) ‘Person markers: finite conjunct and disjunct forms in Newari’, in R. Trail (ed.) Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics 7 (Pacific Linguistics Series A, no. 53), Canberra: Australian National University.
  • —— (1985) ‘Noun phrase form and cohesive function in Newari’, in U. Piepel and G. Stickel (eds.) Studia Linguistica Diachronica et Synchronica, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
  • —— (1986) ‘Users’ guide to the Newari dictionary’, in T. Manandhar (ed.) Newari–English Dictionary, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
  • —— (1994) ‘Entailed kin reference and Newari -mha’, paper presented to the 27th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, Paris, France.
  • Hale, A. and Mahandhar, T. (1980) ‘Case and role in Newari’, in R. Trail (ed.) Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics 7 (Pacific Linguistics Series A, no. 53), Canberra: Australian National University.
  • Hargreaves, D. (1986) ‘Independent verbs and auxiliary functions in Newari’ Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 12: 401–12.
  • —— (1991) ‘The conceptual structure of intentional action: data from Kathmandu Newari’, Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 17: 379–89.
  • —— (1996) ‘From interrogation to topicalization: PTB *la in Kathmandu Newar’, Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 19.2: 31–44.
  • Template:Cite journal
  • Jørgenson, H. (1931) ‘A dictionary of the Classical Newari’, Det. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filologiske Meddelelser 23.1.
  • —— (1941) ‘A grammar of the Classical Newari’, Det. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filologiske Meddelelser 27.3.
  • Jos, L. K. (1992) [NS 1112] ‘Nep%l bh%M%y% bh%M%vaijñ%nika vyakaraNa’ (A linguistic grammar of nep%l bh%Ma (Newar)), Kathmandu: Lacoul Publications.
  • Kansakar, T. R. (1982) ‘Morphophonemics of the Newari verb’, in T.R. Kansakar (ed.) Occasional Papers in Nepalese Linguistics 12–29. Linguistic Society of Nepal Publication No.1, Lalitpur, Nepal.
  • —— (1997) ‘The Newar language: a profile’, New%h Vijñ%na: Journal of Newar Studies 1.1: 11–28.
  • Kölver, U. (1976) ‘Satztypen und verbsubcategorisierung der Newari’, Structura 10, Munich: Fink Verlag.
  • —— (1977) ‘Nominalization and lexicalization in Newari’, Arbeiten des Kölner Universalen-Projekts 30.
  • Kölver, U. and Shresthacarya, I. (1994) A Dictionary of Contemporary Newari, Bonn: VGH Wissenschaftsverlag.
  • Manandhar, T. (1986) Newari-English Dictionary, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
  • Malla, K. P. (1982) Classical Newari Literature: A Sketch, Kathmandu: Educational Enterprise Pvt. Ltd.
  • —— (1985) ‘The Newari language: a working outline’, Monumenta Serindica No. 14., Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
  • Shakya, D. R. (1992) ‘Nominal and verbal morphology in six dialects of Newari’, unpublished masters thesis, University of Oregon.
  • Shrestha, Uma (1990) ‘Social networks and code-switching in the Newar community of Kathmandu City’, unpublished PhD dissertation, Ball State University.
  • Shresthacharya, I. (1976) ‘Some types of reduplication in the Newari verb phrase’, Contributions to Nepalese Studies 3.1: 117–27.
  • —— (1981) ‘Newari root verbs’, Bibliotheca Himalayica 2.1, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.

External linksEdit

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