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Om (or Aum; {{#if:LL-Q9610 (ben)-Titodutta-ওঁ.wav|{{#ifexist:Media:LL-Q9610 (ben)-Titodutta-ওঁ.wav|<phonos file="LL-Q9610 (ben)-Titodutta-ওঁ.wav">listen</phonos>|{{errorTemplate:Main other|Audio file "LL-Q9610 (ben)-Titodutta-ওঁ.wav" not found}}Template:Category handler}}}}; Template:Langx, ISO 15919: Ōṁ) is a polysemous symbol representing a sacred sound, syllable, mantra, and invocation in Hinduism.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> Its written form is the most important symbol in the Hindu religion.<ref name="wilke4352">Template:Cite book</ref> It is the essence of the supreme Absolute,<ref name=":1" /> consciousness,<ref name="james4822">James Lochtefeld (2002), "Om", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. Template:ISBN, page 482</ref><ref name="Holdrege19962">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="merriam-webster.com2">"Om". Merriam-Webster (2013), Pronounced: \ˈōm\</ref> Ātman, Brahman, or the cosmic world.<ref name="David Leeming 20052">David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 54</ref><ref name="ReferenceA2">Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 318</ref><ref name="annette2">Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, De Gruyter, Template:ISBN, pages 435–456</ref> In Indian religions, Om serves as a sonic representation of the divine, a standard of Vedic authority and a central aspect of soteriological doctrines and practices.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite thesis</ref> It is the basic tool for meditation in the yogic path to liberation.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite book</ref> The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the Vedas, the Upanishads, and other Hindu texts.<ref name="annette2" /> It is described as the goal of all the Vedas.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Om emerged in the Vedic corpus and is said to be an encapsulated form of Samavedic chants or songs.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage (samskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as Pranava yoga.<ref name="David White 20112">David White (2011), Yoga in Practice, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 104–111</ref><ref name="Alexander Studholme 20122">Alexander Studholme (2012), The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 1–4</ref> It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.<ref>T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of Hindu Iconography, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, p. 248</ref><ref>Sehdev Kumar (2001), A Thousand Petalled Lotus: Jain Temples of Rajasthan, Template:ISBN, p. 5</ref> As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and during meditation in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.<ref name="The Indian Mantra pp. 2442">Jan Gonda (1963), The Indian Mantra, Oriens, Vol. 16, pp. 244–297</ref><ref name="lipner2">Julius Lipner (2010), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. 66–67</ref>
The syllable Om is also referred to as Onkara (Omkara) and Pranava among many other names.<ref name="Misra20182">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>"OM". Sanskrit English Dictionary, University of Köln, Germany</ref>
Common names and synonymsEdit
The syllable Om is referred to by many names, including:
- Template:IAST ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}); literally, "fore-sound", referring to Om as the primeval sound.<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), Pranava, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. Template:ISBN, page 522</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 74-75, 347, 364, 667</ref>
- Template:IAST ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) or Template:IAST ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}); literally, "Om-maker", denoting the first source of the sound Om and connoting the act of creation.<ref>Diana Eck (2013), India: A Sacred Geography, Random House, Template:ISBN, page 245</ref><ref>R Mehta (2007), The Call of the Upanishads, Motilal Barnarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 67</ref><ref>Omkara, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, University of Koeln, Germany</ref><ref>CK Chapple, W Sargeant (2009), The Bhagavad Gita, Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, page 435</ref>
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}); literally, "one Om-maker", and an epithet of God in Sikhism. (see below).
- Template:IAST ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}); meaning "song, chant", a word found in Samaveda and bhasya (commentaries) based on it. It is also used as a name of the syllable Om in Chandogya Upanishad.<ref>Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page 12 with footnote 1</ref>
- Template:IAST ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable".
- Template:IAST; literally, "one letter of the alphabet", referring to its representation as a single ligature. (see below)
Origin and spiritual significanceEdit
The etymological origins of ōm (aum) have long been discussed and disputed, with even the Upanishads having proposed multiple Sanskrit etymologies for aum, including: from "ām" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "yes"), from "ávam" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "āv-" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "to urge") or "āp-" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; "to attain").<ref name="PSSOM">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn-ua In 1889, Maurice Bloomfield proposed an origin from a Proto-Indo-European introductory particle "*au" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).<ref name=PSSOM/> However, contemporary Indologist Asko Parpola proposes a borrowing from Dravidian "*ām" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "*ākum", cognate with modern Tamil "ām" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) meaning "yes".<ref name=PSSOM/><ref name="PRoH">Template:Cite book</ref> In the Jaffna Tamil dialect spoken in Sri Lanka, aum' is the word for yes.Template:Citation needed
Regardless of its original meaning, the syllable Om evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads. Max Müller and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend Om as a basic tool for meditation<ref name=":3" /> and explain the various meanings that the syllable may hold in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to the "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life, Brahman, Atman, and Self-knowledge".<ref>Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 1-21</ref><ref name="deussenmeaningofom">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 67-85, 227, 284, 308, 318, 361-366, 468, 600-601, 667, 772</ref>
The syllable Om is first mentioned in the Upanishads. It has been associated with various concepts, such as "cosmic sound", "mystical syllable", "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads.<ref name="annette2"/> In the Aranyaka and the Brahmana layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda".<ref name="annette2"/> The symbolic foundations of Om are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 207</ref><ref>John Grimes (1995), Ganapati: The Song of Self, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 78-80 and 201 footnote 34</ref> The Aitareya Brahmana of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, suggests that the three phonetic components of Om (a + u + m) correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe.<ref name="annette2"/><ref>Aitareya Brahmana 5.32, Rig Veda, pages 139-140 (Sanskrit); for English translation: See Template:Cite book</ref> However, in the eight anuvaka of the Taittiriya Upanishad, which consensus research indicates was formulated around the same time or preceding Aitareya Brahmana, the sound Aum is attributed to reflecting the inner part of the word Brahman. Put another way, it is the Brahman, in the form of a word.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equates Om with bhur-bhuvah-svah, which symbolizes "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning to Om, such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated".<ref name="annette2"/> The Samaveda, the poetical Veda, orthographically maps Om to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (Oum, Aum, Ovā Ovā Ovā Um, etc.) and then attempts to extract musical meters from it.<ref name="annette2"/>
PronunciationEdit
When occurring within spoken Classical Sanskrit, the syllable is subject to the normal rules of sandhi in Sanskrit grammar, with the additional peculiarity that the initial o of "Om" is the guṇa vowel grade of u, not the vṛddhi grade, and is therefore pronounced as a monophthong with a long vowel ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}), i.e. ōm not aum.Template:Efn-ua<ref name="Whitney1950">Template:Cite book</ref> Furthermore, the final m is often assimilated into the preceding vowel as nasalisation (Template:Transliteration). As a result, Om is regularly pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in the context of Sanskrit.
However, this o reflects the older Vedic Sanskrit diphthong au, which at that stage in the language's history had not yet monophthongised to o. This being so, the syllable Om is often archaically considered as consisting of three phonemes: "a-u-m".<ref>Osho (2012). The Book of Secrets, unpaginated. Osho International Foundation. Template:ISBN.</ref><ref>Mehta, Kiran K. (2008). Milk, Honey and Grapes, p.14. Puja Publications, Atlanta. Template:ISBN.</ref><ref>Misra, Nityanand (2018). The Om Mala, unpaginated. Bloomsbury Publishing. Template:ISBN.</ref><ref>Vālmīki; trans. Mitra, Vihārilāla (1891). The Yoga-vásishtha-mahárámáyana of Válmiki, Volume 1, p.61. Bonnerjee and Company. Template:Pre-ISBN.</ref> Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong au viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the Vedas.
In the context of the Vedas, particularly the Vedic Brahmanas, the vowel is often pluta ("three times as long"), indicating a length of three morae (Template:Transliteration), that is, the time it takes to say three light syllables. Additionally, a diphthong becomes Template:Transliteration with the prolongation of its first vowel.<ref name="Whitney1950" /> When e and o undergo Template:Transliteration they typically revert to the original diphthongs with the initial a prolonged,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> realised as an overlong open back unrounded vowel (ā̄um or a3um {{#invoke:IPA|main}}). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such as Arya Samaj.
However, Om is also attested in the Upanishads without pluta,Template:Efn-ua and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as Hindustani, share its pronunciation of Om ({{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}).
Written representationsEdit
South AsiaEdit
Nagari or Devanagari representations are found epigraphically on sculpture dating from Medieval India and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia. Om is represented in Devanagari as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, composed of four elements: the vowel letter Template:ScriptTemplate:Nbsp(Template:IAST), the vowel diacritic Template:ScriptTemplate:Nbsp(Template:IAST), the consonant letter Template:ScriptTemplate:Nbsp(Template:IAST), and the virama stroke Template:Script which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. Historically, the combination Template:Script represented a diphthong, often transcribed as Template:IAST, but it now represents a long vowel, Template:IAST. (See above.) The syllable is sometimes written {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, where Template:Script (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicates pluta ('three times as long') which is otherwise only implied. For this same reason Om may also be written {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in languages such as Hindi, with the Template:IAST (Template:Script) being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of the Template:IAST in Sanskrit, where it would instead indicate the prodelision of the initial vowel.) Om may also be written {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, with an Template:IAST reflecting the pronunciation of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in languages such as Hindi. In languages such as Urdu and Sindhi Om may be written Template:Script in Arabic script, although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations.
The commonly seen representation of the syllable Om, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, is a cursive ligature in Devanagari, combining Template:ScriptTemplate:Nbsp(Template:IAST) with Template:ScriptTemplate:Nbsp(Template:IAST) and the chandrabindu (ँ,Template:NbspTemplate:IAST). In Unicode, the symbol is encoded at Template:Unichar and at Template:Unichar as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font".<ref>https://unicodeplus.com/U+095 0 Unicode Character "ॐ" (U+0950) </ref>
In some South Asian writing systems, the Om symbol has been simplified further. In Bengali and Assamese Om is written simply as Template:Script without an additional curl. In languages such as Bengali differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for Template:IAST redundant. Although the spelling is simpler, the pronunciation remains {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Similarly, in Odia Om is written as Template:Script without an additional diacritic.
In Tamil, Om is written as Template:Script, a ligature of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (ō) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (m), while in Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam, Om is written simply as the letter for ō followed by Template:IAST ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, respectively).
There have been proposals that the Om syllable may already have had written representations in Brahmi script, dating to before the Common Era. A proposal by Deb (1921) held that the swastika is a monogrammatic representation of the syllable Om, wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters (Template:Unichar) were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A commentary in Nature (1922) considers this theory questionable and unproven.<ref>Template:Cite journal Template:Google books</ref> A. B. Walawalkar (1951) proposed that Om was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" (Template:Script), and that this may have influenced the unusual epigraphical features of the symbol Template:Script for Om.<ref>Template:Cite book See the section, "Ancient Symbols".</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Parker (1909) wrote that an "Aum monogram", distinct from the swastika, is found among Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions in Sri Lanka,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> including Anuradhapura era coins, dated from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, which are embossed with Om along with other symbols.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
East and Southeast AsiaEdit
The Om symbol, with epigraphical variations, is also found in many Southeast Asian countries.
In Southeast Asia, the Om symbol is widely conflated with that of the unalome; originally a representation of the Buddha's urna curl and later a symbol of the path to nirvana, it is a popular yantra in Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia and Thailand. It frequently appears in sak yant religious tattoos, and has been a part of various flags and official emblems such as in the Thong Chom Klao of King Rama IV (Template:Reign)<ref>Deborah Wong (2001), Sounding the Center: History and Aesthetics in Thai Buddhist Performance, University of Chicago Press, Template:ISBN, page 292</ref> and the present-day royal arms of Cambodia.<ref>James Minahan (2009), The Complete Guide to National Symbols and Emblems, Template:ISBN, pages 28-29</ref>
The Khmer adopted the symbol since the 1st century during the Kingdom of Funan, where it is also seen on artefacts from Angkor Borei, once the capital of Funan. The symbol is seen on numerous Khmer statues from Chenla to Khmer Empire periods and still in used until the present day.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Better source needed
In Chinese characters, Om is typically transliterated as either 唵 (Template:Lang-zh) or 嗡 (Template:Lang-zh).
Representation in various scriptsEdit
Northern BrahmicEdit
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Southern BrahmicEdit
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Non-BrahmicEdit
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HinduismEdit
In Hinduism, Om is one of the most important spiritual sounds.<ref name="wilke4352"/> The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the Vedas, the Upanishads, and other Hindu texts,<ref name="annette2"/> and is often chanted either independently or before a mantra, as a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages (sanskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as yoga.<ref name="David White 20112"/><ref name="Alexander Studholme 20122"/>
It is the most sacred syllable symbol and mantra of Brahman,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> which is the ultimate reality, consciousness or Atman (Self within).<ref name="David Leeming 20052"/><ref name="ReferenceA2"/><ref name="james4822"/><ref name="Holdrege19962"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
It is called the Shabda Brahman (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound (Template:Transliteration) of the universe.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
VedasEdit
Om came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the Vedas. For example, the Gayatri mantra, which consists of a verse from the Rigveda Samhita (RV 3.62.10), is prefixed not just by Om but by Om followed by the formula bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ.<ref name="mmwpage17">Monier Monier-Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom, Luzac & Co., London, page 17</ref> Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending with Om.<ref name="lipner2"/>
BrahmanasEdit
Aitareya BrahmanaEdit
The Aitareya Brahmana (7.18.13) explains Om as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".<ref name="wilke4352"/>
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
Om is the agreement (pratigara) with a hymn. Likewise is tathā = 'so be it' [the agreement] with a [worldly] song (gāthā) [= the applause]. But Om is something divine, and tathā is something human.
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UpanishadsEdit
Chandogya UpanishadEdit
The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism. It opens with the recommendation that "let a man meditate on Om".<ref name="maxmuller11">Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 1–3 with footnotes</ref> It calls the syllable Om as udgitha ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings is earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is the Rigveda, the essence of the Rigveda is the Samaveda, and the essence of Samaveda is the udgitha (song, Om).<ref name=pauldeussen11 />
Template:IAST ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is speech, states the text, and Template:IAST ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is breath; they are pairs, and because they have love for each other, speech and breath find themselves together and mate to produce a song.<ref name=maxmuller11 /><ref name=pauldeussen11 /> The highest song is Om, asserts section 1.1 of Chandogya Upanishad. It is the symbol of awe, of reverence, of threefold knowledge because Adhvaryu invokes it, the Hotr recites it, and Udgatr sings it.<ref name="pauldeussen11">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 68-70</ref><ref name="Patrick Olivelle 2014 page 171-185">Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 171-185</ref>
The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllable Om, explaining its use as a struggle between Devas (gods) and Asuras (demons).<ref name="pauldeussen12">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 70–71 with footnotes</ref> Max Muller states that this struggle between gods and demons is considered allegorical by ancient Indian scholars, as good and evil inclinations within man, respectively.<ref name="maxmuller12">Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 4–6 with footnotes</ref> The legend in section 1.2 of Chandogya Upanishad states that gods took the Udgitha (song of Om) unto themselves, thinking, "with this song we shall overcome the demons".<ref name="hume12">Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 178-180</ref> The syllable Om is thus implied as that which inspires the good inclinations within each person.<ref name=maxmuller12 /><ref name=hume12 />
Chandogya Upanishad's exposition of syllable Om in its opening chapter combines etymological speculations, symbolism, metric structure and philosophical themes.<ref name="Patrick Olivelle 2014 page 171-185" /><ref>Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 4–19 with footnotes</ref> In the second chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad, the meaning and significance of Om evolves into a philosophical discourse, such as in section 2.10 where Om is linked to the Highest Self,<ref>Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page 28 with footnote 1</ref> and section 2.23 where the text asserts Om is the essence of three forms of knowledge, Om is Brahman and "Om is all this [observed world]".<ref>Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page 35</ref>
Katha UpanishadEdit
The Katha Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy, Nachiketa, the son of sage Template:Transliteration, who meets Yama, the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, Atman (Self) and moksha (liberation).<ref name="pauldeussenintro">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 269-273</ref> In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge (Template:Transliteration) as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance (Template:Transliteration) as the pursuit of the pleasant.<ref name="maxmuller121">Max Muller (1962), Katha Upanishad, in The Upanishads – Part II, Dover Publications, Template:ISBN, page 8</ref> It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word Om.<ref name="pauldeussen1214">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 284-286</ref>
Maitri UpanishadEdit
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad in sixth Prapathakas (lesson) discusses the meaning and significance of Om. The text asserts that Om represents Brahman-Atman. The three roots of the syllable, states the Maitri Upanishad, are A + U + M.<ref name="maxmuller64">Template:Cite book</ref>
The sound is the body of Self, and it repeatedly manifests in three:
- as gender-endowed body – feminine, masculine, neuter;
- as light-endowed body – Agni, Vayu, and Aditya;
- as deity-endowed body – Brahma, Rudra,Template:Efn-ua and Vishnu;
- as mouth-endowed body – garhapatya, dakshinagni, and ahavaniya;Template:Efn-ua
- as knowledge-endowed body – Rig, Saman, and Yajur;Template:Efn-ua
- as world-endowed body – Template:IAST, Template:IAST, and Template:IAST;Template:Efn-ua
- as time-endowed body – past, present, and future;
- as heat-endowed body – breath, fire, and Sun;
- as growth-endowed body – food, water, and Moon;
- as thought-endowed body – intellect, mind, and psyche.<ref name=maxmuller64 /><ref name="cowell64">Maitri Upanishad – Sanskrit Text with English TranslationTemplate:Dead link EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, page 258-260</ref>
Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless.<ref>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 306-307 verse 6.3</ref> The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless is not changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable Om as the Self.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Efn-ua
The world is Om, its light is Sun, and the Sun is also the light of the syllable Om, asserts the Upanishad. Meditating on Om, is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).<ref name=maxmuller64 />
Mundaka UpanishadEdit
The Mundaka Upanishad in the second Mundakam (part), suggests the means to knowing the Atman and the Brahman are meditation, self-reflection, and introspection and that they can be aided by the symbol Om. It uses a bow and arrow analogy, where the bow symbolizes the focused mind, the arrow symbolizes the self (Atman), and the target represents the ultimate reality (Brahman).<ref>Paul Deussen (Translator), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass (2010 Reprint), Template:ISBN, pages 580-581</ref><ref>Eduard Roer, Mundaka Upanishad Bibliotheca Indica, Vol. XV, No. 41 and 50, Asiatic Society of Bengal, page 144</ref>
Adi Shankara, in his review of the Mundaka Upanishad, states Om as a symbolism for Atman (Self).<ref>Mundaka Upanishad, in Upanishads and Sri Sankara's commentary – Volume 1: The Isa Kena and Mundaka, SS Sastri (Translator), University of Toronto Archives, page 144 with section in 138-152</ref>
Mandukya UpanishadEdit
The Mandukya Upanishad opens by declaring, "Om!, this syllable is this whole world".<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> Thereafter, it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies.<ref name=humefull /> This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived from A + U + M + "silence" (or without an element).<ref name="pauldeussenfull">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 605-637</ref><ref name="humefull">Template:Citation</ref>
- Om as all states of Time.
- In verse 1, the Upanishad states that time is threefold: the past, the present and the future, that these three are Om. The four fourth of time is that which transcends time, that too is Om expressed.<ref name=humefull />
- Om as all states of Ātman .
- In verse 2, states the Upanishad, everything is Brahman, but Brahman is Atman (the Self), and that the Atman is fourfold.<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.<ref name="johnston">Charles Johnston, The Measures of the Eternal – Mandukya Upanishad Theosophical Quarterly, October, 1923, pages 158-162</ref>
- Om as all states of Consciousness.
- In verses 3 to 6, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates four states of consciousness: wakeful, dream, deep sleep, and the state of ekatma (being one with Self, the oneness of Self).<ref name=humefull /> These four are A + U + M + "without an element" respectively.<ref name=humefull />
- Om as all of Knowledge.
- In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllable Om. It states that the first element of Om is A, which is from Apti (obtaining, reaching) or from Adimatva (being first).<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> The second element is U, which is from Utkarsa (exaltation) or from Ubhayatva (intermediateness).<ref name=humefull /> The third element is M, from Miti (erecting, constructing) or from Mi Minati, or apīti (annihilation).<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Om is indeed the Atman (the self).<ref name=pauldeussenfull /><ref name=humefull />
Shvetashvatara UpanishadEdit
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllable Om, where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable Om is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads.<ref name="pauldeussen116">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 308</ref><ref>Max Muller, Shvetashvatara Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, page 237</ref> The text asserts that Om is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Ganapati UpanishadEdit
The Ganapati Upanishad asserts that Ganesha is same as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, all deities, the universe, and Om.Template:Sfnp
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(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire Template:Bracket and air Template:Bracket. You are the sun Template:Bracket and the moon Template:Bracket. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).
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Jaiminiya Upanishad BrahmanaEdit
The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana, a Samavedic text, outlines a story where those who chant Om can achieve the same rewards as deities. However, the gods are concerned about humans ascending to their realm. To address this concern, a compromise is reached between the gods and Death. Humans can attain immortality, but it involves relinquishing their physical bodies to Death. This immortality entails an extended celestial existence after a long earthly life, where the practitioner aspires to acquire a divine self (atman) in a non-physical form, allowing them to reside eternally in the heavenly realm.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
RamayanaEdit
In Valmiki's Ramayana, Rama is identified with Om, with Brahma saying to Rama:
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"You are the sacrificial performance. You are the sacred syllable Template:Transliteration (on hearing which the Template:Transliteration priest casts the oblation to a deity into the sacrificial fire). You are the mystic syllable OM. You are higher than the highest. People neither know your end nor your origin nor who you are in reality. You appear in all created beings in the cattle and in Template:Transliterations. You exist in all quarters, in the sky, in mountains and in rivers."{{#if:Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda, Sarga 117<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
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Bhagavad GitaEdit
The Bhagavad Gita, in the Mahabharata, mentions the meaning and significance of Om in several verses. According to Jeaneane Fowler, verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "Om which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonal Brahman".<ref name=jfowler164 />
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"Of this universe, I am the Father; I am also the Mother, the Sustainer, and the Grandsire. I am the purifier, the goal of knowledge, the sacred syllable Om. I am the Ṛig Veda, Sāma Veda, and the Yajur Veda."
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The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of the Gita, such as verse 17.24 where the importance of Om during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:<ref name=jfowler271 />
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"Therefore, uttering Om, the acts of yagna (fire ritual), dāna (charity) and tapas (austerity) as enjoined in the scriptures, are always begun by those who study the Brahman."
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PuranasEdit
The medieval era texts of Hinduism, such as the Puranas adopt and expand the concept of Om in their own ways, and to their own theistic sects.
Edit
The Vaishnava Garuda Purana equates the recitation of Om with obeisance to Vishnu.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to the Vayu Purana,Template:Citation needed Om is the representation of the Hindu Trimurti, and represents the union of the three gods, viz. A for Brahma, U for Vishnu and M for Shiva.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> The Bhagavata Purana (9.14.46-48) identifies the Pranava as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters of a-u-m as an invocation of seminal birth, initiation, and the performance of sacrifice (yajña).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In Śrī Vaiṣṇava tradition, sub-traditions differ on who has eligibility to say Oṁ, but it is generally a "nonissue" as it is not necessary for salvation. The Teṉkalai division, represented by Piḷḷailokācārya in his Parantapaṭi, allow everyone to recite the praṇava, arguing the syllable arises spontaneously from all. The Vaṭakalai division, represented by Vedāntadeśika in his Rahasyatrayasāra, disallows women and śūdras from reciting the praṇava, citing older scriptural injunctions to support the stance.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Shaiva traditionsEdit
In Shaiva traditions, the Shiva Purana highlights the relation between deity Shiva and the Pranava or Om. Shiva is declared to be Om, and that Om is Shiva.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> After this, an epithet of Shiva is Omkareshwar, the Lord, Ishvara, of oṃkāra.
Shakta traditionsEdit
In the thealogy of Shakta traditions, Om connotes the female divine energy, Adi Parashakti, represented in the Tridevi: A for the creative energy (the Shakti of Brahma), Mahasaraswati, U for the preservative energy (the Shakti of Vishnu), Mahalakshmi, and M for the destructive energy (the Shakti of Shiva), Mahakali. The 12th book of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana describes the Goddess as the mother of the Vedas, the Adya Shakti (primal energy, primordial power), and the essence of the Gayatri mantra.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Other textsEdit
Yoga SutraEdit
The aphoristic verse 1.27 of Pantanjali's Yogasutra links Om to Yoga practice, as follows: Template:Poem quote
Johnston states this verse highlights the importance of Om in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolises the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is, asserts Johnston, a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.<ref name=charlesj />
Chaitanya CharitamritaEdit
In Krishnava traditions, Krishna is revered as Svayam Bhagavan, the Supreme Lord himself, and Om is interpreted in light of this. According to the Chaitanya Charitamrita, Om is the sound representation of the Supreme Lord. A is said to represent Bhagavan Krishna (Vishnu), U represents Srimati Radharani (Mahalakshmi), and M represents jiva, the Self of the devotee.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
TantrasāraEdit
According to the Tantrasāra of Kr̥ṣṇānanda Āgamavāgīśa, a śūdra may not be initiated with a mantra beginning with Oṁ aka praṇava.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
JainismEdit
In Jainism, Om is considered a condensed form of reference to the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi by their initials A+A+A+U+M (Template:IASTTemplate:IAST).
The Dravyasamgraha quotes a Prakrit line:Template:Sfnp Template:Poem quote
By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the Namokar mantra,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the Template:IAST. These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arihants, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".Template:Sfnp
BuddhismEdit
Om is often used in some later schools of Buddhism, for example Tibetan Buddhism, which was influenced by Hinduism and Tantra.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In East Asian Buddhism, Om is often transliterated as the Chinese character Template:Script (pinyin Template:Transliteration) or Template:Script (pinyin Template:Transliteration).
Tibetan Buddhism and VajrayanaEdit
In Tibetan Buddhism, Om is often placed at the beginning of mantras and dharanis. Probably the most well known mantra is "Om mani padme hum", the six syllable mantra of the Bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteśvara. This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed Template:IAST form of Avalokiteśvara. Moreover, as a seed syllable (Bīja mantra), Om is considered sacred and holy in Esoteric Buddhism.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra Template:IAST to be Template:IAST, with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness.<ref name="carlolsenb">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Template:IAST has been described by the 14th Dalai Lama as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impure body, speech, and mind of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to Simpkins, Om is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Japanese BuddhismEdit
A-unEdit
Template:See also The term Template:Nihongo is the transliteration in Japanese of the two syllables "a" and "Template:IAST", written in Devanagari as Template:Script. In Japanese, it is often conflated with the syllable Om. The original Sanskrit term is composed of two letters, the first (Template:Script) and the last (Template:Script) letters of the Devanagari abugida, with diacritics (including anusvara) on the latter indicating the "-Template:IAST" of "Template:IAST". Together, they symbolically represent the beginning and the end of all things.<ref name="jaanus a-un">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In Japanese Mikkyō Buddhism, the letters represent the beginning and the end of the universe.<ref>Daijirin Japanese dictionary, 2008, Monokakido Co., Ltd.</ref> This is comparable to Alpha and Omega, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, similarly adopted by Christianity to symbolise Christ as the beginning and end of all.
The term a-un is used figuratively in some Japanese expressions as Template:Nihongo or Template:Nihongo, indicating an inherently harmonious relationship or nonverbal communication.
Niō guardian kings and komainu lion-dogsEdit
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The term is also used in Buddhist architecture and Shinto to describe the paired statues common in Japanese religious settings, most notably the Niō ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) and the komainu ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).<ref name="jaanus a-un" /> One (usually on the right) has an open mouth regarded by Buddhists as symbolically speaking the "A" syllable; the other (usually on the left) has a closed mouth, symbolically speaking the "Un" syllable. The two together are regarded as saying "A-un". The general name for statues with an open mouth is Template:Nihongo, that for those with a closed mouth Template:Nihongo.<ref name="jaanus a-un" />
Niō statues in Japan, and their equivalent in East Asia, appear in pairs in front of Buddhist temple gates and stupas, in the form of two fierce looking guardian kings (Vajrapani).<ref name="adrian">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="helenbaroni">Template:Cite book</ref>
Komainu, also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth (Template:Transliteration), the other closed (Template:Transliteration).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
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SikhismEdit
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Ik Onkar (Template:Langx; iconically represented as Template:Script) are the first words of the Mul Mantar, which is the opening verse of the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh scripture.<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar">Template:Cite book</ref> Combining the numeral one ("Ik") and "Onkar", Ik Onkar literally means "one Om ";<ref name="gulati285">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Efn-ua these words are a statement that there is "one God",<ref name="Sikhism">Template:Cite book</ref> understood to refer to the "absolute monotheistic unity of God"<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar" /> and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence".<ref name="wazirsingh">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Efn-ua
According to Pashaura Singh, Onkar is used frequently as invocation in Sikh scripture; it is the foundational word (shabad), the seed of Sikh scripture, and the basis of the "whole creation of time and space".<ref name=pashaura227/>
Ik Onkar is a significant name of God in the Guru Granth Sahib and Gurbani, states Kohli, and occurs as "Aum" in the Upanishads and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds (Trailokya) of creation.<ref name="sskohli39">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Efn-ua According to Wazir Singh, Onkar is a "variation of Om (Aum) of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifying seed-force that evolves as the universe".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Guru Nanak wrote a poem entitled Onkar in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker".<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar" /> Template:Poem quote
"Onkar" is the primordial sound/word. It is the soundless word (anahat naad or anahad naad). It is both the source as well as manifestation of the source. "Onkar" pervades the entire creation. The soundless sound is present everywhere and inside everything including us. In Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib is manifested form of this "Onkar". Hence, the Guru Granth Sahib is called "Shabad Guru". Shabad (word) is Guru and Guru itself is the Primordial Sound "Onkar" (God).Template:Citation needed
ThelemaEdit
For both symbolic and numerological reasons, Aleister Crowley adapted aum into a Thelemic magical formula, AUMGN, adding a silent 'g' (as in the word 'gnosis') and a nasal 'n' to the m to form the compound letter 'MGN'; the 'g' makes explicit the silence previously only implied by the terminal 'm' while the 'n' indicates nasal vocalisation connoting the breath of life and together they connote knowledge and generation. Together these letters, MGN, have a numerological value of 93, a number with polysemic significance in Thelema. Om appears in this extended form throughout Crowley's magical and philosophical writings, notably appearing in the Gnostic Mass. Crowley discusses its symbolism briefly in section F of Liber Samekh and in detail in chapter 7 of Magick (Book 4).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Modern receptionEdit
The Brahmic script Om-ligature has become widely recognized in Western counterculture since the 1960s, mostly in its standard Devanagari form (Template:Script), but the Tibetan Om (Template:Bo-textonly) has also gained limited currency in popular culture.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In meditationEdit
Meditating and chanting of Om can be done by first concentrating on a picture of Om and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been saidTemplate:By whom to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.Template:SfnTemplate:Unreliable source?
See alsoEdit
NotesEdit
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