Oracle bone

Template:Short description Template:Infobox Chinese Oracle bones are pieces of ox scapula and turtle plastron which were used in pyromancy Template:Snda form of divination Template:Sndduring the Late Shang period (Template:Circa) in ancient China. Scapulimancy is the specific term if ox scapulae were used for the divination, plastromancy if turtle plastrons were used. A recent count estimated that there were about 13,000 bones with a total of a little over 130,000 inscriptions in collections in China and some fourteen other countries.Template:Sfn

Diviners would submit questions to deities regarding weather, crop planting, the fortunes of members of the royal family, military endeavors, and similar topics.Template:Sfn These questions were carved onto the bone or shell in oracle bone script using a sharp tool. Intense heat was then applied with a metal rod until the bone or shell cracked due to thermal expansion. The diviner would then interpret the pattern of cracks and write the prognostication upon the piece as well.Template:Sfn Pyromancy with bones continued in China into the Zhou dynasty, but the questions and prognostications were increasingly written with brushes and cinnabar ink, which degraded over time.

Oracle bones bear the earliest known significant corpus of ancient Chinese writing, using an early form of Chinese characters.Template:Efn The inscriptions contain around 5,000 different characters, many of which are still being used today,Template:Sfn though the total number of discrete characters is uncertain as some may be different versions of the same character. Specialists have agreed on the form, meanings, and sound of a little more than a quarter of the characters, roughly 1,200 with certainty, but several hundred more remain under discussion; these known characters comprise much of the core vocabulary of modern Chinese.Template:Sfn They provide important information on the late Shang period, and scholars have reconstructed the Shang royal genealogy from the cycle of ancestral sacrifices recorded on oracle bones.Template:Sfn Template:Efn When they were discovered at the end of the nineteenth century and deciphered in the early twentieth century,Template:Sfn these records confirmed the existence of the Shang, whose historicity had been subject to scrutiny at the time by the Doubting Antiquity School.

Oraculology is the discipline for the study of oracle bones and the oracle bone script.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref>

DiscoveryEdit

File:Wang Yirong.jpg

Wang Yirong, Chinese politician and scholar, was the first to recognize the oracle bones as ancient writing.

Shang-era oracle bones are thought to have been unearthed occasionally by local farmersTemplate:Sfn since as early as the Sui and Tang dynasties, and perhaps starting as early as the Han dynasty.<ref>Template:Harvnb, citing Wei Juxian 1939, "Qín-Hàn shi fāxiàn jiǎgǔwén shuō", in Shuōwén Yuè Kān, vol. 1, no.4; and He Tianxing 1940, "Jiǎgǔwén yi xianyu gǔdài shuō", in Xueshu (Shànghǎi), no. 1</ref> In Sui and Tang era Anyang, which was at one time the capital of the Shang dynasty, oracle bones were exhumed during burial ceremonies, though grave diggers did not realize what the bones were and generally reinterred them.Template:Sfn During the 19th century, villagers in the area who were digging in the fields discovered a number of bones, and used them as dragon bones, following the traditional Chinese medicine practice of grinding up Pleistocene fossils into tonics or poultices.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The turtle shell fragments were prescribed for malaria,Template:Efn while the other animal bones were used in powdered form to treat knife wounds.Template:Sfn

In 1899, an antiques dealer from Shandong who was searching for Chinese bronzes in the area acquired a number of oracle bones from locals, and later sold several to Wang Yirong, the chancellor of the Imperial Academy in Beijing.Template:Sfn Wang was a knowledgeable collector of Chinese bronzes, and is believed to be the first person in modern times to recognize the oracle bones' markings as ancient Chinese writing similar to that on Zhou dynasty bronzes.Template:Sfn A legendary tale relates that Wang was sick with malaria, and his scholar friend Liu E was visiting him and helped examine his medicine. They discovered that, before being ground into powder, the bones bore strange glyphs which, having studied the ancient bronze inscriptions, they recognized as ancient writing.Template:Sfn Xu Yahui states that, "[n]o one can know how many oracle bones, prior to 1899, were ground up by traditional Chinese pharmacies and disappeared into people's stomachs."Template:Sfn

It is not known how Wang and Liu actually came across these specimens, but Wang is credited with being the first to recognize their significance.Template:Sfn During the Boxer Rebellion, Wang reluctantly accepted a defense command, and killed himself in 1900 when allied troops entered Beijing. His son later sold the bones to Liu, who published the first book of rubbings of the oracle bone inscriptions in 1903.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn As news of the oracle bones' discovery spread throughout China and among foreign collectors and scholars the market for the bones exploded, though many collectors sought to keep the location of the bones' source a secret.Template:Sfn Although scholars tried to find their source, antique dealers falsely claimed that the bones came from Tangyin in Henan.Template:Sfn In 1908, scholar Luo Zhenyu discovered the source of the bones near Anyang and realized that the area was the site of the last Shang dynasty capital.Template:Sfn

Decades of uncontrolled digs followed to fuel the antiques trade,Template:Efn and many of these pieces eventually entered collections in Europe, the United States, Canada, and Japan.Template:Sfn The first Western collector was the American missionary Frank H. Chalfant (1862–1914).Template:Efn Chalfant called the script "inscriptions upon bone and tortoise shell" in his 1906 book Early Chinese Writing. The Chinese equivalent Template:Tlit {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} appeared in the following decades.Template:Sfn

Only a small number of dealers and collectors knew the location of the source of the oracle bones until they were found by Canadian missionary James Mellon Menzies, the first person to scientifically excavate, study, and decipher them. He was the first to conclude that the bones were records of divination from the Shang dynasty, and was the first to come up with a method of dating them (in order to avoid being fooled by fakes). In 1917 he published the first scientific study of the bones, including 2,369 drawings and inscriptions and thousands of ink rubbings. Through the donation of local people and his own archaeological excavations, he acquired the largest private collection in the world, over 35,000 pieces. He insisted that his collection remain in China, though some were sent to Canada by colleagues who were worried that they would be either destroyed or stolen during the Japanese invasion of China in 1937.Template:Sfn The Chinese still acknowledge the pioneering contribution of Menzies as "the foremost western scholar of Yin-Shang culture and oracle bone inscriptions"Template:Citation needed. His former residence in Anyang was declared a "Protected Treasure" in 2004, and the James Mellon Menzies Memorial Museum for Oracle Bone Studies was established.Template:Sfn<ref>Wang Haiping (2006). "Menzies and Yin-Shang Culture Scholarship – An Unbreakable Bond". Anyang Ribao [Anyang Daily], August 12, 2006, p.1</ref><ref>See Linfu Dong (2005). Cross Culture and Faith: the Life and Work of James Mellon Menzies. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Template:ISBN.</ref>

Official excavationsEdit

File:Oracle bones pit.JPG

Reconstruction of oracle bone pit YH127 at Yinxu

By the time of the establishment of the Institute of History and Philology by Fu Sinian at the Academia Sinica in 1928, the source of the oracle bones had been traced back to modern Xiaotun (Template:Zhi) village at Anyang in Henan. Official archaeological excavations led by Li Ji, the father of Chinese archaeology,Template:Sfn between 1928 and 1937 discovered 20,000 oracle bone pieces, which now form the bulk of the Academia Sinica's collection in Taiwan and constitute about 1/5 of the total discovered.Template:Efn The major archaeologically excavated pits of bones have been:

Pit YH127 in Xiaotun North (1936), with over 17,000 inscribed pieces.
Xiaotun South (1977–1979), with 4,612 inscribed pieces.
Huayuangzhuang East (1991), with 561 inscribed pieces.Template:Sfn

When deciphered, the inscriptions on the oracle bones were revealed to be records of the divinations performed for or by the royal household. These, together with royal-sized tombs,Template:Efn proved beyond a doubt for the first time the existence of the Shang dynasty, which had recently been doubted, and the location of its last capital, Yin. Today, Xiaotun at Anyang is thus also known as the Ruins of Yin, or Yinxu.

PublicationEdit

Oracle bone inscriptions were published as they were discovered, in fascicles. Subsequently, many collections of inscriptions were also published. The following are the main collections.

Observing that the citation of these different works was becoming unwieldy, historians Hu Houxuan and Guo Moruo began an effort to comprehensively publish all bones discovered by the mid-1950s. The result, the Jiaguwen Heji (1978–1982) was edited by Houxuan and Guo Moruo and,Template:Efn with its supplement (1999) edited by Peng Bangjiong, is the most comprehensive catalogue of the oracle bone fragments. The 20 volumes contain reproductions of over 55,000 fragments. A separate work published in 1999 contains transcriptions of the inscriptions into standard characters.Template:Sfn

DatingEdit

File:Shang dynasty inscribed scapula.jpg

Ox scapula recording divinations by Template:Zhi Template:Zhi during the reign of king Wu Ding

The vast majority of the inscribed oracle bones were found at the Yinxu site in modern Anyang and date to the reigns of the last nine Shang kings.Template:Sfn The diviners named on the bones have been assigned to five periods by Dong Zuobin:Template:Sfn

Period	Kings	Common diviners
I	Wu Ding Template:Efn	Template:Zhi Template:Zhi, Template:Zhi Template:Zhi, Template:Zhi Template:Zhi, Template:Zhi Template:Zhi
II	Zu Geng, Zu Jia	Template:Zhi Template:Zhi, Template:Zhi Template:Zhi, Template:Zhi Template:Zhi, Template:Zhi Template:Zhi, Template:Zhi Template:Zhi, Template:Zhi Template:Zhi
III	Lin Xin, Kang Ding	Template:Zhi Template:Zhi
IV	Wu Yi, Wen Wu Ding
V	Di Yi, Di Xin

The kings were involved in divination in all periods, with divinations in later periods done personally by the king.Template:Sfn The extant inscriptions are not evenly distributed across these periods, with 55% coming from period I and 31% from periods III and IV.Template:Sfn A few oracle bones date to the beginning of the subsequent Zhou dynasty.

The earliest oracle bones (corresponding to the reigns of Wu Ding and Zu Geng) record dates using only the 60-day cycle of stems and branches, though sometimes the month was also given.Template:Sfn Attempts to determine an absolute chronology focus on a number of lunar eclipses recorded in inscriptions by the Bīn group, who worked during the reign of Wu Ding, possibly extending into the reign of Zu Geng. Assuming that the 60-day cycle continued uninterrupted into the securely dated period, scholars have sought to match the recorded dates with calculated dates of eclipses.Template:Sfn There is general agreement on four of these, spanning dates from 1198 to 1180 BCE.Template:Sfn A fifth is assigned by some scholars to 1201 BCE.Template:Sfn From this data, the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project, relying on the statement in the "Against Luxurious Ease" chapter of the Book of Documents that the reign of Wu Ding lasted 59 years, dated it from 1250 to 1192 BCE.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn American sinologist David Keightley argued that the "Against Luxurious Ease" chapter should not be treated as a historical text because it was composed much later, presents reign lengths as moral judgements, and gives other reign lengths that are contradicted by oracle bone evidence.Template:Sfn Estimating an average reign length of 20 years based on dated Zhou reigns, Keightley proposed that Wu Ding's reign started around 1200 BCE or earlier.Template:Sfn Ken-ichi Takashima dates the earliest oracle bone inscriptions to 1230 BCE.Template:Sfn 26 oracle bones throughout Wu Ding's reign have been radiocarbon dated to 1254–1197 BCE (±10 years) with an estimated 80-90% probability of containing the true individual ages.Template:Sfn

Period V inscriptions often identify numbered ritual cycles, making it easier to estimate the reign lengths of the last two kings.Template:Sfn The start of this period is dated 1100–1090 BCE by Keightley and 1101 BCE by the Xia–Shang–Zhou project.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Most scholars now agree that the Zhou conquest of the Shang took place close to 1046 or 1045 BCE, over a century later than the traditional date.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Shang divinationEdit

Since divination was by heat or fire and most often on plastrons or scapulae, the terms pyromancy, plastromancyTemplate:Efn and scapulimancy are often used for this process.

MaterialsEdit

File:Shang dynasty inscribed tortoise plastron.jpg

Tortoise plastron with divination inscription

The oracle bones are mostly turtle plastrons, probably femaleTemplate:Efn and ox scapulae, although there are also examples of tortoise carapaces, ox rib bones,Template:Efn the scapulae of sheep, boars, horses, and deer, and other various animal bones.Template:Efn The skulls of deer, oxen, and humans have also been found with inscriptions on them,Template:Efn although these are very rare and appear to have been inscribed for record keeping or practice rather than for actual divination;Template:Sfn Template:Efn in one case, inscribed deer antlers were reported, but Keightley reports that they are fake.Template:Sfn Template:Efn Interestingly, tortoises are not native to the areas oracle bones were discovered and thus it is theorized they were presented to the region as tribute.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Neolithic diviners in China had long been heating the bones of deer, sheep, pigs, and cattle for similar purposes; evidence for this in Liaoning has been found dating to the late fourth millennium BCE.Template:Sfn However, over time, the use of ox bones increased, and use of tortoise shells does not appear until early Shang culture. The earliest tortoise shells found that had been prepared for divinatory use (i.e., with chiseled pits) date to the earliest Shang stratum at Erligang (modern Zhengzhou).Template:Sfn By the end of the Erligang, the plastrons were numerous,Template:Sfn and at Anyang, scapulae and plastrons were used in roughly equal numbers.Template:Sfn Due to the use of these shells in addition to bones, early references to the oracle bone script often used the term "shell and bone script", but since tortoise shells are actually a bony material, the more concise term "oracle bones" is applied to them as well.

The bones or shells were first sourced and then prepared for use. Their sourcing is significant because some of them (especially many of the shells) are believed to have been presented as tribute to the Shang, which provides valuable information about diplomatic relations of the time. We know this because notations were often made on them recording their provenance (e.g., tribute of how many shells from where and on what date). For example, one notation records that "Template:Zhi (Template:Zhi) sent 250 (tortoise shells)", identifying this as, perhaps, a statelet within the Shang sphere of influence.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Efn These notations were generally made on the back of the shell's bridge (called bridge notations), the lower carapace, or the xiphiplastron (tail edge). Some shells may have been from locally raised tortoises, however.Template:Efn Scapula notations were near the socket or a lower edge. Some of these notations were not carved after being written with a brush, proving (along with other evidence) the use of the writing brush in Shang times. Scapulae are assumed to have generally come from the Shang's own livestock, perhaps those used in ritual sacrifice, although there are records of cattle sent as tribute as well, including some recorded via marginal notations.Template:Sfn

PreparationEdit

File:Chinese oracle bone (16th-10th C BC) - BL Or. 7694.jpg

Holes drilled into an oracle bone

The bones or shells were cleaned of meat and then prepared by sawing, scraping, smoothing, and even polishing to create flat surfaces.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Efn The predominance of scapulae, and later of plastrons, is also thought to be related to their ease of use as large, flat surfaces that needed minimal preparation. There is also speculation that only female tortoise shells were used, as these are significantly less concave.Template:Sfn Pits or hollows were then drilled or chiseled partway through the bone or shell in an orderly series. At least one such drill has been unearthed at Erligang, exactly matching the pits in size and shape.Template:Sfn The shape of these pits evolved over time, and is an important indicator for dating the oracle bones within various sub-periods in the Shang dynasty. The shape and depth also helped determine the nature of the crack that would appear. The number of pits per bone or shell varied widely.

Cracking and interpretationEdit

File:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - oracle bone inscription.jpg

In this Shang-era oracle bone (which is incomplete), a diviner asks the Shang king if there would be misfortune over the next ten days; the king replied that he had consulted the ancestor Xiao Jia in a worship ceremony.

Divinations were typically carried out for the Shang kings in the presence of a diviner. Very few oracle bones were used in divination by other members of the royal family or nobles close to the king. By the latest periods, the Shang kings took over the role of diviner personally.Template:Sfn

During a divination session, the shell or bone was anointed with blood<ref>Template:Harvnb, citing the Rites of Zhou.</ref> and, in an inscription section called the "preface", the date was recorded using the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches, along with the diviner's name. Next, the topic of divination (called the "charge") was posed,Template:Efn such as whether a particular ancestor was causing a king's toothache. The divination charges were often directed at ancestors, whom the ancient Chinese revered and worshiped, as well as natural powers and Template:Zhi (Template:Zhi), the highest god in the Shang society. Anything of concern to the royal house of Shang served as possible topics for charges, from illness, birth and death, to weather, warfare, agriculture, tribute and so on.Template:Sfn One of the most common topics was whether performing rituals in a certain manner would be satisfactory.Template:Efn

An intense heat sourceTemplate:Efn was then inserted in a pit until it cracked. Due to the shape of the pit, the front side of the bone cracked in a rough Template:Zhi shape. The characterTemplate:Zhi (Template:Zhi or Template:Zhi; Old Chinese: Template:Tlit; 'to divine') may be a pictogram of such a crack; the reading of the character may also be an onomatopoeia for the cracking. A number of cracks were typically made in one session, sometimes on more than one bone, and these were typically numbered. The diviner in charge of the ceremony read the cracks to learn the answer to the divination. How exactly the cracks were interpreted is not known. The topic of divination was raised multiple times, and often in different ways, such as in the negative, or by changing the date being divined about. One oracle bone might be used for one session or for many,Template:Efn and one session could be recorded on a number of bones. The divined answer was sometimes then marked either "auspicious" or "inauspicious", and the king occasionally added a "prognostication", his reading on the nature of the omen.Template:Sfn On very rare occasions, the actual outcome was later added to the bone in what is known as a "verification".Template:Sfn A complete record of all the above elements is rare; most bones contain just the date, diviner and topic of divination,Template:Sfn and many remained uninscribed after the divination.Template:Sfn

The uninscribed divination is thought to have been brush-written with ink or cinnabar on the oracle bones or accompanying documents, as a few of the oracle bones found still bear their brush-written divinations without carving,Template:Efn while some have been found partially carved. After use, shells and bones used ritually were buried in separate pits (some for shells only; others for scapulae only),Template:Efn in groups of up to hundreds or even thousands (one pit unearthed in 1936 contained over 17,000 pieces along with a human skeleton).Template:Sfn

Changes in the nature of divinationEdit

The targets and purposes of divination changed over time. During the reign of Wu Ding, diviners were likely to ask the powers or ancestors about things like the weather, success in battle, or building settlements. Offerings were promised if they would help with earthly affairs.

Crack-making on jiazi (day 1) Zheng divined "In praying for harvest to the sun, (we) will cleave ten dappled cows, and pledge one hundred dappled cows."
(Heji 10116; Y530.2)

Keightley explains that this divination is unique in being addressed to the sun, but typical in that 10 cattle are being offered, with 100 more to follow if the harvest is good. <ref>David N. Keightley "The Making of the Ancestors: Late Shang Religion and its Legacy" in Keightley, David N. These Bones Shall Rise Again: Selected Writings on Early China.. Albany, NY: State Univ of New York Pr, 2014. p.161</ref> Later divinations were more likely to be perfunctory, optimistic, made by the king himself, addressed to his ancestors, on a regular cycle, and unlikely to ask the ancestors to do anything. Keightley suggests that this reflects a change in ideas about what the powers and ancestors could do, and the extent to which the living could influence them. <ref>David N. Keightley "Late Shang Divination: The Magico-Religious Legacy" in Keightley, David N. These Bones Shall Rise Again: Selected Writings on Early China.. Albany, NY: State Univ of New York Pr, 2014 p.108, David N. Keightley "The Shang: China’s First Historical Dynasty" in Loewe, Michael, and Edward L. Shaughnessy. The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. p.243-5</ref>

Evidence of pre-Anyang pyromancyEdit

While the use of bones in divination has been practiced almost globally, divination involving fire or heat has generally been found only in Asia and the Asian-derived North American cultures.Template:Sfn The use of heat to crack scapulae (pyro-scapulimancy) originated in ancient China, the earliest evidence of which extends back to the 4th millennium BCE with archaeological finds from Liaoning, though these were not inscribed.Template:Sfn The scapulae of cattle, sheep, pigs, and deer used in pyromancy have been found at neolithic archeological sites,Template:Sfn and the practice appears to have become quite common by the end of the third millennium BCE. Scapulae were unearthed along with smaller numbers of pitless plastrons in the Nánguānwài (Template:Zhi) stage at Zhengzhou; scapulae as well as smaller numbers of plastrons with chiseled pits were also discovered in the lower and upper Erligang stages.Template:Sfn

Significant use of tortoise plastrons does not appear until the Shang culture sites.Template:Sfn Ox scapulae and plastrons, both prepared for divination, were found at the Shang culture sites of Táixīcūn (Template:Zhi) in Hebei and Qiūwān (Template:Zhi) in Jiangsu.Template:Sfn One or more pitted scapulae were found at Lùsìcūn (Template:Zhi) in Henan, while unpitted scapulae have been found at Erlitou in Henan, Cixian (Template:Zhi) in Hebei, Níngchéng (Template:Zhi) in Liaoning, and Qijia (Template:Zhi) in Gansu.Template:Sfn Plastrons do not become more numerous than scapulae until the Rénmín (Template:Zhi) Park phase.Template:Sfn

Other sitesEdit

Four inscribed bones have been found at Zhengzhou: three with numbers 310, 311, and 312 in the Hebu corpus, and one that has a single character (Template:Zhi), which also appears in late Shang inscriptions. HB 310, which contained two brief divinations, has been lost, but is recorded in a rubbing and two photographs. HB 311 and 312 each contain a pair of characters that are similar to the late Shang script. HB 312 was found in an upper layer of the Erligang culture. The others were found accidentally in river management earthworks, and so lack archaeological context. Pei Mingxiang argued that they predated the Anyang site. Takashima, referring to character forms and syntax, argues that they were contemporaneous with the reign of Wu Ding.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

A turtle plastron bearing several short inscriptions was found at Daxinzhuang in Shandong on the floor of a semi-subterranean house dating from the Late Shang period. The style of characters is close to that used by particular diviner groups active at Anyang during the reign of Wu Ding, though it shows some variations.Template:Sfn

Nearly 300 inscribed oracle bones (HB 1–290) were found in 1977 in two pits dug into a building foundation at Qijia, Fufeng County, Shaanxi, part of the Zhou ritual centre known as the Zhōuyuán. Some of these are believed to be contemporaneous with the reign of Di Xin, the last Shang king, and others to date from the early Western Zhou.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The inscriptions are distinguished from those of Anyang in the way the bones and shells were prepared and used, the smallness of the characters, the presence of unique vocabulary, and the use of the phases of the moon as a dating device.Template:Sfn Four pieces (HB 1, 12, 13 and 15) have been particularly puzzling, because they refer to sacrifices in the temples of Shang ancestors, and also differ from the other bones in calligraphy and syntax. Scholars disagree on whether they were produced at Anyang or the Zhouyuan, and whether the diviners and scribes were Shang or Zhou.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

In 2003, around 600 inscribed bones were found at Zhougongmiao, a temple dedicated to the Duke of Zhou during the Tang dynasty, about Template:Cvt west of Qijia. They mention the Duke of Zhou and other figures of the early Western Zhou.Template:Sfn A handful of oracle bones have been found at other Western Zhou sites, including some from Beijing.Template:Sfn

After the ShangEdit

After the founding of Zhou, the Shang practices of bronze casting, pyromancy, and writing continued. Oracle bones that were found in the 1970s have been dated to the Zhou dynasty, with some dating to the Spring and Autumn period; very few, however, were inscribed. It is thought that other methods of divination supplanted pyromancy, such as numerological divination using milfoil (yarrow) in connection with the hexagrams of the I Ching, leading to the decline of inscribed oracle bones. However, evidence for the continued use of plastromancy exists for the Eastern Zhou, Han, Tang,Template:Sfn and Qing<ref>Template:Harvnb, citing Hu Xu 1782–1787, ch. 4, p.3b on use in Jiangsu</ref> dynasty periods, and Keightley mentions its use in Taiwan as late as 1972.<ref>Template:Harvnb cites Zhāng Guangyuan 1972</ref>