Vaginoplasty

Template:Use dmy dates Template:Short description Template:Infobox medical intervention Vaginoplasty is any surgical procedure that results in the construction or reconstruction of the vagina. It is a type of genitoplasty. Pelvic organ prolapse is often treated with one or more surgeries to repair the vagina. Sometimes a vaginoplasty is needed following the treatment or removal of malignant growths or abscesses to restore a normal vaginal structure and function. Surgery to the vagina is done to correct congenital defects to the vagina, urethra and rectum. It may correct protrusion of the urinary bladder into the vagina (cystocele) and protrusion of the rectum (rectocele) into the vagina.Template:Sfn Often, a vaginoplasty is performed to repair the vagina and its attached structures due to trauma or injury.

Congenital disorders such as adrenal hyperplasia can affect the structure and function of the vagina and sometimes the vagina is absent; these can be reconstructed or formed, using a vaginoplasty.<ref name="Gundeti2012">Template:Cite book </ref> Other candidates for the surgery include babies born with a microphallus, people with Müllerian agenesis resulting in vaginal hypoplasia, trans women, and women who have had a vaginectomy after malignancy or trauma.<ref name=Hoffman2012>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="HorbachBouman2015">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Medical uses

Vaginoplasty is the description of the following surgical interventions: Template:Div col

• separation of congenitally fused urethra and vagina<ref name=Hiort2014/>
• repair of a urethra that is short<ref name=Hiort2014>Template:Cite book</ref>
• vaginal construction<ref name=Hoffman2012/><ref name=icd100UQGOZZ>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

• vaginal reconstruction<ref name=Hoffman2012/><ref name=icd100UQGOZZ/>
• vaginal vault prolapseTemplate:Sfn
• vaginal suspension and fixation<ref name=Hoffman2012/><ref name=icd100UQGOZZ/>
• operations on recto-uterine pouch<ref name=Hoffman2012/><ref name=icd100UQGOZZ/>
• repair of cystocele<ref name=Hoffman2012/><ref name=icd100UQGOZZ/>and rectocele<ref name=Hoffman2012/>
• retropubic paravaginal repairTemplate:Sfn
• the repair of a cystocele using a graft or prosthesis<ref name=Hoffman2012/><ref name=icd100UQGOZZ/>
• the repair of a cystocele and a rectocele in the same procedure using a graft or prosthetic device<ref name=Hoffman2012/><ref name=icd100UQGOZZ/>
• the repair of a rectocele using a graft or prosthetic material<ref name=Hoffman2012/>
• the vaginal construction using a graft or prosthetic material<ref name=Hoffman2012/><ref name = acien/>
• the vaginal reconstruction using a graft or prosthetic material<ref name=Hoffman2012/>
• the vaginal suspension and stabilization using with graft or prosthetic material
• treatment of MRKH syndrome (vaginal agenesis)<ref name = acien/>
• hymenorrhaphy

Template:Div col end In some instances, extra tissue is needed to reconstruct or construct the vagina. These grafts used in vaginoplasty can be an allotransplantation, a heterograft, or an autologous material.<ref name="acien" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A woman can use an autologous in vitro cultured tissue taken from her vaginal vestibule as transplanted tissue to form the lining of the reconstructed vagina.<ref name="acien" /> A reconstructed or newly constructed vagina is called a neovagina.<ref name="Unger-2014">Template:Cite book</ref>

Vaginoplasties in children

Template:See also Conditions such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia virilize genetic females due to a 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Specific procedures include: clitoral reduction, labiaplasty, normalizing appearance, vagina creation, initiating vaginal dilation.<ref name="2016dsd" /> Vaginal atresia, or congenital absence of the vagina, can be another reason for surgery to construct a normal and functional vagina.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Vaginoplasty is used as part of the series of surgeries needed to treat those girls and women born with the bladder located outside of their abdomen. After the repairs, women have been able to give birth but are at risk of prolapse.Template:Sfn

There are human rights concerns about vaginoplasties and other genital surgeries in children who are not old enough to consent,<ref name="un-2016">Template:Citation</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> including concern with post-surgical sexual function,<ref name="bmj2015">Template:Cite journal</ref> and assumptions of cisnormativity.<ref name="untorture">Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on Torture, Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, February 2013.</ref> There is no consensus attitude among clinicians about their necessity, timing, method or evaluation.<ref name="2016dsd">Template:Cite journal</ref> Vaginoplasties may be performed in children or adolescents with intersex conditions or disorders of sex development.<ref name="lee">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Techniques

Non-surgical vagina creation was used in the past to treat the congenital absence of a vagina. The procedure involved the wearing of a saddle-like device and the use of increasing-diameter dilators. The procedure took several months and was sometimes painful. It was not effective in every instance.<ref name="Gundeti2012" /> Uncommon growths, cysts, septums in the vagina can also require vaginoplasty.Template:Sfn

Reconstructive surgery after cancer treatment

Radiological cancer treatment can result in the destruction or alteration of vaginal tissues. Vaginoplasty is often performed to reconstruct the vagina and other genital structures. In some cases, normal sexual function can be restored.<ref name=Hoffman2012/>

McIndoe surgical technique

A canal is surgically constructed between the urinary bladder and urethra in the anterior portion of the pelvic region and the rectum. A skin graft is used from another area of the person's body. The graft is removed from the thigh, buttocks, or inguinal region. Other materials have been used to create the lining of the new vagina. These have been cutaneous skin flaps, amniotic membranes, and buccal mucosa.<ref name=Hoffman2012/><ref name=acien>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Gender-affirming surgery

Several techniques may be used in gender-affirming surgery to create a neovagina.

Penile inversion

Inversion of the penile skin is the method most often selected to create a neovagina by surgeons performing gender-affirming surgery. The inverted penile skin uses inferior pedicle skin or abdominal skin for the lining of the neovagina. The skin is cut to form an appropriate-sized flap. The skin flap is sometimes combined with a scrotal or urethral flap.<ref name="HorbachBouman2015"/>

The penile inversion technique was pioneered by Georges Burou in his Morocco clinic in the 1950s.<ref name="Hage-2007">Template:Cite journal</ref> By the 1970s he had performed hundreds of them, and gave his first public presentation of his technique to a conference at Stanford University in 1973,<ref name="Goddard-2007">Template:Cite journal</ref> after which it gradually became the predominant technique worldwide.

Bowel vaginoplasty

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Peritoneal vaginoplasty

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Other methods

Penile-scrotal skin flaps are also used. Nongenital full-thickness graft (FTG) or split-thickness skin grafts from other parts of the body have been used.Template:Citation needed

Elective vaginoplasty

Critics have labeled such surgery as the "designer vagina". The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists issued a warning against these procedures in 2007<ref name=WSJ>Template:Cite news</ref> as did the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists,<ref name="bb" /> and a commentary in the British Medical Journal strongly criticized the "designer vagina" in 2009.<ref name="bb">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="bmj">Template:Cite journal</ref> The Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada published a policy statement against elective vaginoplasty based upon the risks associated with unnecessary cosmetic surgery in 2013.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Vaginal rejuvenation is a form of elective plastic surgery. Its purpose is to restore or enhance the vagina's cosmetic appearance.<ref name="bmj"/>

Hymen surgical procedures

Template:Further An imperforate hymen is the presence of tissue that completely covers the vaginal opening. It is cut to allow menstrual flow to exit during a short surgical procedure.Template:Sfn A hymenorrhaphy is the surgical procedure that reconstructs the hymen.

Balloon vaginoplasty

In this procedure, a Foley catheter is laparoscopically inserted to the rectouterine pouch whereupon gradual traction and distension are applied to create a neovagina.Template:Citation needed

Pull through or Vecchietti procedure

In treating Müllerian agenesis, the Vecchietti procedure is a laparoscopic surgical technique that produces a vagina of dimensions (depth and width) comparable to those of a normal vagina (ca. 8 cm deep).<ref name="pmid5319813">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="pmid8893702">Template:Cite journal</ref> A small, plastic sphere called an olive is threaded (sutured) against the vaginal area; the threads are drawn though the vaginal skin, up through the abdomen, and through the navel. There, the threads are attached to a traction device, and then daily are drawn tight so that the olive is pulled inwards and stretches the vagina, by approximately 1 cm per day, thereby creating a vagina, approximately 7 cm deep by 7 cm wide, in 7 days. The mean operating room (OR) time for the Vecchietti vaginoplasty is approximately 45 minutes; yet, depending upon the patient and her indications, the procedure might require more time.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The outcomes of Vecchietti technique via the laparoscopic approach are found to be comparable to the procedure using laparotomy.<ref name="pmid10189024">Template:Cite journal</ref> In vaginal hypoplasia, traction vaginoplasty such as the Vecchietti technique seems to have the highest success rates both anatomically (99%) and functionally (96%) among available treatments.<ref name="Callens2014">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Sfn

Other surgical techniques that have been developed include ileal neovagina (Monti's technique), Creatsas vaginoplasty, Wharton–Sheares–George neovaginoplasty, or the Davydov procedure. The most widely used is the Vecchietti laparoscopic procedure. Sometimes sexual intercourse can result in the dilation of a newly constructed vagina.<ref name="acien" />

Vaginal dilators and expanders

File:Inflatable vaginal expander.jpg

Vaginal expander ZSI 200 NS

File:ZSI 200 NS Vaginal Expander in Vagina.jpg

ZSI 200 NS vaginal expander stretching the female vagina

Template:Main article The most techniques of vaginoplasty are using inflatable vaginal expanders or vaginal stents to design the vaginal diameter and length.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> At the end of the procedure the device stays in place to maintain the neovagina against the pelvic wall which also favors the process of microscopic neovascularization and reduces the risks of hematoma. In post-operative setting the expander can be used regularly to prevent post-operative vaginal retraction.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Solid vaginal dilators can also be used immediately after surgery to keep the passage from attachments, and regularly thereafter to maintain the viability of the neovagina. The frequency required to use decreases over time, however remains obligatory lifelong.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Risks and complications

Reconstructive vaginoplasty in children and adolescents carries the risk of superinfection.Template:Sfn

In adults, rates and types of complications varied with gender-affirming surgery. Necrosis of the clitoral region was 1–3%. Necrosis of the surgically created vagina was 3.7–4.2%. Vaginal shrinkage occurred was documented in 2–10% of those treated. Stricture, or narrowing of the vaginal orifice was reported in 12–15% of the cases. Of those reporting stricture, 41% underwent a second operation to correct the condition. Necrosis of two scrotal flaps has been described. Posterior vaginal wall is a rare complication. Genital pain was reported in 4–9%. Rectovaginal fistula is also rare with 1% documented. Vaginal prolapse was seen in 1–2% of people assigned male at birth undergoing this procedure.<ref name="HorbachBouman2015"/>

The ability of emptying the bladder was affected for some patients after this procedure: 13% reported improvement, 68% said that there was no change and 19% reported that voiding got worse. Those reporting a negative outcome who experienced loss of bladder control and urinary incontinence were 19%. Urinary tract infections occurred in 32% of those treated.<ref name="HorbachBouman2015"/>

History

Reports of people seeking vaginoplasty go back to the 2nd century.<ref name="Smith-Han">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The first modern vaginoplasty was performed in 1931 on Dora Richter.<ref name="Smith-Han"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Lili Elbe also underwent a vaginoplasty the same year.<ref name="Erickson-Schroth Davis 2021 p. 74">Template:Cite book</ref>

See also

• Intersex medical interventions
• Gender-affirming surgery (male-to-female)
• List of transgender-related topics
• Enterocele
• Sigmoidocele

Bibliography

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book^{electronic book, no page numbers.}