Phytochemical

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Red, blue, and purple colors of berries derive mainly from polyphenol phytochemicals called anthocyanins.

Cucurbita fruits, including squash and pumpkin, typically have high content of the phytochemical pigments called carotenoids.

Phytochemicals are naturally-occurring chemicals present in or extracted from plants.<ref name="lpi">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="frank">Template:Cite journal</ref> Some phytochemicals are nutrients for the plant, while others are metabolites produced to enhance plant survivability and reproduction.<ref name="hassan">Template:Cite book</ref>

The fields of extracting phytochemicals for manufactured products or applying scientific methods to study phytochemical properties are called phytochemistry.<ref name=frank/><ref name=hassan/> An individual who uses phytochemicals in food chemistry manufacturing or research is a phytochemist.

Phytochemicals without a nutrient definition have no confirmed biological activities or proven health benefits when consumed in plant foods.<ref name=frank/> Once phytochemicals in a food enter the digestion process, the fate of individual phytochemicals in the body is unknown due to extensive metabolism of the food in the gastrointestinal tract, producing phytochemical metabolites with different biological properties from those of the parent compound that may have been tested in vitro.<ref name="lpi-flav">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Further, the bioavailability of many phytochemical metabolites appears to be low, as they are rapidly excreted from the body within minutes.<ref name=lpi-flav/> Other than for dietary fiber, no non-nutrient phytochemicals have sufficient scientific evidence for providing a health benefit.

Some ingested phytochemicals may be toxic, and some may be used in cosmetics, drug discovery, or traditional medicine.<ref name=hassan/>

EtymologyEdit

Phytochemical derives by compounding the Ancient Greek word for plant (phytón, phyto) with chemical,<ref name=frank/> as first used in English for plant chemistry and organic chemistry around 1850.<ref name="oed">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

DefinitionEdit

Phytochemicals are chemicals produced by plants through primary or secondary metabolism.<ref name=frank/><ref name=Harborne>Template:Cite book</ref> They generally have biological activity in the plant host and play a role in plant growth or defense against competitors, pathogens, or predators.<ref name=Molyneux>Template:Cite journal</ref> As components of plants, all individual phytochemicals make up the whole plant as it exists in nature.<ref name=frank/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Phytochemicals are generally regarded as research compounds rather than essential nutrients because proof of their possible health effects has not been established yet.<ref name=lpi/><ref name=frank/><ref name=Heneman>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Phytochemicals under research can be classified into major categories, such as carotenoids<ref name="lpi-carot">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and polyphenols, which include phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes or lignans.<ref name=Heneman/> Flavonoids can be further divided into groups based on their similar chemical structure, such as anthocyanins, flavones, flavanones, isoflavones, and flavanols.<ref name=lpi-flav/><ref name=Heneman/> Flavanols are further classified as catechins, epicatechins, and proanthocyanidins.<ref name=lpi-flav/><ref name=Heneman/> In total, between 50,000<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and 130,000<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> phytochemicals have been discovered.

Phytochemists study phytochemicals by first extracting and isolating compounds from the origin plant, followed by defining their structure or testing in laboratory model systems, such as in vitro studies or in vivo studies using laboratory animals.<ref name=frank/><ref name=Molyneux/> Challenges in that field include isolating specific compounds and determining their structures, which are often complex, and identifying what specific phytochemical is primarily responsible for any given biological activity.<ref name=frank/><ref name=Molyneux/>

Further, upon consuming phytochemicals in a food entering the digestion process, the fate of individual phytochemicals in the body is unknown due to extensive metabolism in the gastrointestinal tract, producing smaller phytochemical metabolites with different biological properties from those of the parent compound, and with low bioavailability and rapid excretion.<ref name=lpi-flav/> Other than for dietary fiber,<ref name="lpi-fiber">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> no non-nutrient phytochemical has sufficient scientific evidence in humans for an approved health claim.<ref name="EFSA">Template:Cite journal</ref>

History of usesEdit

File:Atropa belladonna Prague 2011 2.jpg

Berries of Atropa belladonna, also called deadly nightshade, containing the toxic phytochemicals, tropane alkaloids

Without specific knowledge of their cellular actions or mechanisms, phytochemicals can be toxic or used in traditional medicine. For example, salicin, having anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties, was originally extracted from the bark of the white willow tree and later synthetically produced to become the common, over-the-counter drug, aspirin.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The tropane alkaloids of Atropa belladonna were used as poisons, and early humans made poisonous arrows from the plant.<ref name=Wink1998>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Timbrell2005>Template:Cite book</ref> Other uses include perfumes, such as the sesquiterpene santolols, from sandalwood.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The English yew tree was long known to be extremely and immediately toxic to animals that grazed on its leaves or children who ate its berries; however, in 1971, paclitaxel was isolated from it, subsequently becoming a cancer drug.<ref name=Molyneux/>

FunctionsEdit

The biological activities for most phytochemicals are unknown or poorly understood, in isolation or as part of foods.<ref name=frank/><ref name=Molyneux/><ref name=Heneman/> Phytochemicals with established roles in the body are classified as essential nutrients.<ref name=lpi/><ref name=frank/>

The phytochemical category includes compounds recognized as essential nutrients, which are naturally contained in plants and are required for normal physiological functions, so must be obtained from the diet in humans.<ref name=frank/>

Some phytochemicals are known phytotoxins that are toxic to humans;<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> for example aristolochic acid is carcinogenic at low doses.<ref name=Shaw2010>Template:Cite journal</ref> Some phytochemicals are antinutrients that interfere with the absorption of nutrients.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Others, such as some polyphenols and flavonoids, may be pro-oxidants in high ingested amounts.<ref name="halliwell">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Non-digestible dietary fibers from plant foods, often considered as a phytochemical,<ref name=lpi-fiber/> are generally regarded as a nutrient group having approved health claims for reducing the risk of some types of cancer<ref name="FDA1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and coronary heart disease.<ref name="FDA2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Phytochemical dietary supplements are neither recommended by health authorities for improving health<ref name=Heneman/><ref name="acs">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> nor are they approved by regulatory agencies for health claims on product labels.<ref name=EFSA/><ref name="fda-101.54">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Consumer and industry guidanceEdit

While health authorities encourage consumers to eat diets rich in fruit, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, and nuts to improve and maintain health, evidence that such effects result from specific, non-nutrient phytochemicals is limited or absent.<ref name=lpi/><ref name=frank/> For example, systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses indicate weak or no evidence for phytochemicals from plant food consumption having an effect on breast, lung, or bladder cancers.<ref name=Aune2012review>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Further, in the United States, regulations exist to limit the language on product labels for how plant food consumption may affect cancers, excluding mention of any phytochemical except for those with established health benefits against cancer, such as dietary fiber, vitamin A, and vitamin C.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Phytochemicals, such as polyphenols, have been specifically discouraged from food labeling in Europe and the United States because there is no evidence for a cause-and-effect relationship between dietary polyphenols and inhibition or prevention of any disease.<ref name=EFSA/><ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Among carotenoids such as the tomato phytochemical, lycopene, the US Food and Drug Administration found insufficient evidence for its effects on any of several cancer types, resulting in limited language for how products containing lycopene can be described on labels.<ref name="fda-lycopene">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Effects of food processingEdit

Phytochemicals in freshly harvested plant foods may be degraded by processing techniques, including cooking.<ref name="palermo">Template:Cite journal</ref> The main cause of phytochemical loss from cooking is thermal decomposition.<ref name=palermo/>

A converse exists in the case of carotenoids, such as lycopene present in tomatoes, which may remain stable or increase in content from cooking due to liberation from cellular membranes in the cooked food.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Food processing techniques like mechanical processing can also free carotenoids and other phytochemicals from the food matrix, increasing dietary intake.<ref name=palermo/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In some cases, processing of food is necessary to remove phytotoxins or antinutrients; for example societies that use cassava as a staple have traditional practices that involve some processing (soaking, cooking, fermentation), which are necessary to avoid illness from cyanogenic glycosides present in unprocessed cassava.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

ReferencesEdit

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External linksEdit

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Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases – United States Department of Agriculture

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